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climbing area

2009-02-02T22:27:00.000-08:00

A climbing area is a small geographical region with a concentration of opportunities for climbing. The term is most commonly used of rock climbing areas, but there are also ice climbing areas that have the right combination of steepness and water to result in climbable ice during the winter.

While there are many mountains and cliffs in the world, only a small percentage are popular for climbing. Mountain ranges are frequently at high elevations, remote, and tend to have poor weather much of the time, which means that the climber spends more time hiking, camping, and battling the elements than actually climbing. At the opposite end of the scale, many cliffs are too small or the rock is too unstable to make for an enjoyable and safe experience.

Characteristics

An ideal climbing area has these qualities:

* Close to an access road
* Large number of different routes
* Solid and stable rock
* Safe descent routes
* Good weather
* Free access
* Uncrowded

Yosemite Valley for instance is very nearly ideal. The valley is at a low elevation and allows climbing from March to November, it has an enormous amount of high-quality granite, with hundreds of routes ranging from the easy (The Grack) to some of the longest and hardest in the world, such as The Nose on El Capitan. As part of Yosemite National Park, the bases of the big walls are just a short walk from good roads, camping is available, hiking trails make the descents easy, and of course the scenery is world-class. Its main problem is that it's so popular that some routes will often have multiple parties of climbers getting in each other's way.

Most climbing areas fall short of the ideal, usually making up for it in some other way, sometimes just by being the closest good area to some city.

Development of a climbing area

Since rock climbing became an activity distinct from mountaineering in the 20th century, it is usually possible to trace the entire history of an area, generally starting with a few local climbers using the area as "practice rocks" in preparation for mountaineering expeditions. Inevitably a few in the local community would become more interested in the area for its own sake, exploring the area for new and unusual routes, typically looking for a combination of challenge, safety, and elegance of line, the last being a subjective quality that is nevertheless easy for climbers to agree upon.

This process has become known as "development" of a climbing area, and includes the placing of permanent bolts at key belays spots, rappel slings, as well as agreement on preferred equipment, minimization of environmental impact, and so forth, initially all done by word of mouth.

Development culminates in the publication of a climbing guidebook. The first edition of a guidebook may be little than a mimeographed pamphlet, but in the most highly developed areas, the books are thick tomes full of maps, photographs, and records of first ascents, and some have gone through multiple editions.

Climbers normally have a very light impact on an area; bolts are not visible from a distance, and only the knowledgeable will recognize the worn ground at the base of a route and the chalk residue on the rock for what they are. However, popular climbing areas eventually come to the attention of the area's legal stewards, whether they are the owners of private land, or the rangers of a park. In such cases, the local climbers may need to negotiate access rights or bolting policies. Places like Yosemite National Park actually have a staff of climbing rangers, who work with climbers to develop and enforce usage policies, and to perform rescues.

Cliff

2009-01-19T09:03:00.001-08:00

In geography and geology, a cliff is a significant vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms due to the processes of erosion and weathering that produce them. Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to erosion and weathering. Sedimentary rocks most likely to form sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks, such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs.

An escarpment (or scarp) is a type of cliff, formed by the movement of a geologic fault, or a landslide.

Most cliffs have some form of scree slope at their base. In arid areas or under high cliffs, these are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock. In areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus.

Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters. Sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with tea tables or other types of rock columns remaining.

Given that a cliff need not be exactly vertical, there can be ambiguity about whether a given slope is a cliff or not, and also about how much of a certain slope to count as a cliff. (For example, given a truly vertical rock wall above a very steep slope, one could count only the rock wall, or the combination.) This makes listings of cliffs an inherently uncertain endeavor.

The highest cliff (rock wall, mountain face) in the world, is Nanga Parbat's Rupal Flank in the Himalayas, that rises 4600 meters above its base.

According to some sources, the highest cliff in the world, about 1,340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. (This uses a fairly stringent notion of cliff, as the 1,340 m figure refers to a nearly vertical headwall; adding in a very steep approach brings the total height to over 1,600 m.) The highest sea cliffs, 1,010 m high, are located at Kalaupapa, Hawaii. (This uses a less stringent definition, as the average slope of these cliffs is about 1.7, corresponding to an angle of 60 degrees.)

Considering a truly vertical drop, Mount Thor on Baffin Island in Arctic Canada is often considered the highest at 1,370 m (4,500 ft) high in total (the top 480 m (1,600 ft) is overhanging), and is said to give it the longest purely vertical drop on Earth at 1,250 m (4,100 ft). There is some doubt as to whether this height is exceeded by other cliffs on Baffin Island or in Greenland, however.

The Ordnance Survey distinguish between cliffs (continuous line along the top edge with projections down the face) and outcrops (continuous lines along lower edge).
Nanga Parbat, highest cliff (rock wall, mountain face) in the world

The highest cliff in the solar system may be Verona Rupes, an approximately 20 km (12 mile) high fault scarp on Miranda, a moon of Uranus. The following is an incomplete list of cliffs of the world. (see also Category:Cliffs)

Asia

Above Land

* Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, 4600 m
* Great Trango Towers, Baltoro Muztagh, Northern Areas, Pakistan, 1340 m
* Uli Biaho Towers, Baltoro Glacier, Northern Areas, Pakistan
* Baintha Brakk (The Ogre), Panmah Muztagh, Northern Areas, Pakistan
* The Latok Group, Panmah Muztagh, Northern Areas, Pakistan
* Various cliffs in the Ak-Su Valley of Kyrgyzstan cliffs are high and steep.
* Masada, Israel , Dead Sea

Europe

Above Sea

* Hornelen, Norway, 860 m above Frøysjøen
* Cape Enniberg, Faroe Islands, 750 m above North Atlantic
* Croaghaun, Achill Island, Ireland, 668 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Vixía Herbeira, Northern Galicia, Spain, 621 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Preikestolen, Norway, 604 m above Lysefjorden
* Slieve League, Ireland, 601 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Cabo Girão, Madeira, 589 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Conachair, St Kilda, Scotland 427 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Cap Canaille, France, 416 m above Mediterranean sea is the highest sea cliff in France
* St John's Head (Hoy Orkney Islands Scotland) at 335 m is the most vertical sea cliff in the UK
* Hangman cliffs, Devon 318 m above Bristol Channel is the highest sea cliff in England
* Dingli Cliffs, Malta, 250 m above Mediterranean sea
* Cliffs of Moher, Ireland, 217 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Cap de la Nau, Spain, 200 m above Mediterranean sea
* Beachy Head, England, 162 m above the English Channel
* Snake Island, Romania, 41 m above the Black Sea
* Møns Klint, Denmark, 143 m above Baltic Sea
* White cliffs of Dover, England, 100 m above the Strait of Dover
* Strunjan cliff, Slovenia, 80 m above the Adriatic Sea

Above Land

* Troll Wall, Norway 1100 m above base
* Mięguszowiecki Szczyt north face rises to 1043 m above Morskie Oko lake level, High Tatras, Poland
* Kjerag, Norway 984 m.
* Mały Kieżmarski Szczyt (north face), Tatra Mountains, Slovakia about 900 m denivelation (vertical rise)
* Giewont (north face), Tatra Mountains, Poland, 852 m above Polana Strążyska glade
* Kazalnica Mięguszowiecka, Tatra Mountains, Poland 576 m above the Czarny Staw pod Rysami
* The six great north faces of the Alps (Cima Grande di Lavaredo, Eiger, Grandes Jorasses, Matterhorn, Petit Dru and Piz Badile)

North America
Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada, commonly regarded as the highest purely vertical drop on Earth
Southwest face of El Capitan from Yosemite Valley

Several big granite faces in the Arctic regions vie for the title of 'highest purely vertical drop on Earth', but reliable measurements are not always available. The possible contenders include (measurements are approximate):

* Mount Thor, Baffin Island, Canada; 1,370 m (4,500 ft) total; top 480 m (1,600 ft) is overhanging. This is commonly regarded as being the largest purely vertical drop on Earth at 1,250 m (4,100 ft).
* The sheer north face of Polar Sun Spire, in the Sam Ford fjord of Baffin Island, has been reported as exceeding Mount Thor's west face in height [3].
* Ketil's west face in Tasermiut, Greenland has been reported as 1,400 m - 1,450 m high, (although some doubt has been cast on this)[4][5].

Other notable cliffs include:

* Mount Asgard, Baffin Island, Canada; vertical drop of about 1,200 m (4,000 ft).
* A variety of other cliffs measured at approximately 1,000 m (3,280 ft) in height can be found along the Sam Ford fjord in Baffin Island, such as Walker Citadel, Kiguti Peak and Great Sail Peak, whilst there are others in Querbitter Fjord, and in Tasermiut, Greenland.
* El Capitan, Yosemite Valley, Sierra Nevada, California, United States; about 900 m (3,000 ft) high
* Northwest Face of Half Dome, near El Capitan; 1,340 m (4,400 ft) total, vertical portion about 610 m (2,000 ft)
* Painted Wall in Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, Colorado, United States; 685 m (2,250 ft)
* The west face of Notch Peak in southwestern Utah, United States; a limestone cliff of about 670 m (2,200 ft)
* All faces of Devil's Tower, Wyoming, United States
* Various faces of Shiprock, New Mexico, United States
* The North Face of North Twin Peak, Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada
* All walls of the Stawamus Chief, Squamish, British Columbia, Canada
* Calvert Cliffs along the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland

South America
Salto Angel from Raton, Venezuela.

* Autana Tepui, Venezuela stands 1,300 m above the forest floor.
* Auyan Tepui, Venezuela, about 1000 m (location of Angel Falls) (the falls are 979 m, the highest in the world)
* Pared de Gocta, Peru, 771 m
* Fortaleza canyon, Aparados da Serra National Park, Brazil, about 720 m
* Pedra Azul, Pedra Azul State Park, Espirito Santo, Brazil, 540 m
* Pão de Açúcar/Sugar Loaf, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 395 m
* All faces of Cerro Torre, Patagonia, Chile-Argentina
* All faces of Cerro Chalten (Fitz Roy), Patagonia, Argentina-Chile
* Various faces of the Torres del Paine group, Patagonia, Chile

Africa

Above Sea

* Kogelberg, Western Cape, South Africa, 1289 m above False Bay, Atlantic Ocean
* Table Mountain, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 1086 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Twelve Apostles, Cape Town, South Africa. A series of 17 precipitous peaks (all sharp cliff faces) ranging from ca 700 m to 1067 m above the Atlantic Ocean
* Risco de Faneque, Gran Canaria-Canary Islands, Spain, 1027 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Guguy's Cliffs, Gran Canaria-Canary Islands, Spain, 725 m above Atlantic Ocean
* La Mérica, La Gomera-Canary Islands, Spain, 711 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Andén Verde, Gran Canaria-Canary Islands, Spain, 690 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Karbonkelberg, Western Cape, South Africa, 653 m above Hout Bay, Atlantic Ocean
* La Peña's Cliffs, El Hierro-Canary Islands, Spain, 652 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Los Gigantes, Tenerife-Canary Islands, Spain, 637 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Chapman's Peak, Cape Town, South Africa, 596 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Anaga's Cliffs, Tenerife-Canary Islands, Spain, 592 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Risco de Famara, Lanzarote-Canary Islands, Spain, 580 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Buenavista's Cliffs, Tenerife-Canary Islands, Spain, 546 m above Atlantic Ocean
* Cape Hangklip, Western Cape, South Africa, 453.1 m above False Bay, Atlantic Ocean
* Punta Gaviota's Cliff, La Palma-Canary Islands, Spain, 435 m above Atlantic Ocean
* The Sentinel, Western Cape, South Africa, 331 m above Hout Bay, Atlantic Ocean
* Cape Point, Western Cape, South Africa, 249 m above Atlantic Ocean.

Above Land

* Drakensberg Amphitheatre, South Africa 1200 m above base, 5km long. The Tugela Falls, the world's second tallest waterfall, falls 948 m over the edge of the cliff face.
* Mount Meru, Tanzania Caldera Cliffs, 1500 m
* Klein Winterhoek, Western Cape, South Africa, 1220 m above base.

Oceania

Above Sea

* Kalaupapa, Hawaii, 1010 m above Pacific Ocean

Buck Short Revolution Folding Knife | Mountaineering or Climbing

2008-11-19T16:56:00.000-08:00

Buck produced this climber’s knife in collaboration with mountaineer Peter Whittaker. The 436DPL Short Revolution overcomes some of the weaknesses of the usual lockblade folder and keeps the important perks.

The 2.7 ounce knife opens to a full length of 6 5/8″ with a platinum anodized aircraft aluminum handle big enough to grip like a full sized knife. The 2 1/2″ stainless steel blade comes with a combo serrated edge, the most efficient for working with rope. Closed, the nearly full length tang doubles as a strong carabiner, allowing the knife to be securely fastened to a wide range of gear. Opening the knife rotates the tang into the handle, giving this folding knife strength that most folders lack.

Instead of calling it a folder, the maker describes this knife as a rotating fixed blade knife that uses the handle as a sheath. Maybe it’s not quite a fixed blade knife in terms of strength, but it’s a step up from the usual lock blade folder design and way ahead of the other folding carabiner styles.

One handed opening is obviously an important feature if you expect to be hanging out in the high country. Before you buy this lifetime warranted knife, however, consider a light fixed blade sheath knife that’s already open and won’t ice itself shut.

Clean climbing

2008-11-18T00:36:00.000-08:00

Clean climbing is a style of rock climbing that avoids damage to the rock by eschewing the drilling of bolts and the hammering of pitons. The style became practical with the invention of clean protection: nuts in the 1930s and spring loaded camming devices in the 1970s. The 1970s also saw the introduction of the Leave No Trace concept, which, among similar ethics for other outdoor activities, stipulates that climbers should follow these clean climbing notions.

Clean climbing is the preferred style of climbing in most parts of the United Kingdom where it is more commonly known as traditional climbing (trad); British climbers tolerate bolts and pitons on only a few cliffs. In other parts of the world it co-exists with sport climbing.

Clean climbers can carry and place protection by hand, removing them just as easily and cleanly.

Pitons and bolts are rarely used (almost exclusively in aid climbing) due to the damage they cause to the rock. This ethic has evolved such that on most modern climbs, any bolts and pitons installed are left in place (known as "fixed") for all future parties to use, in order to prevent multiple damaging placements.

Clean climbing differs from Sport Climbing, a popular form of climbing in many parts of Europe and the United States (as well as other countries), in that protection for Sport Climbing is provided entirely by fixed bolts, and clean gear is rarely used. Sport Climbing typically involves shorter routes (usually 100' in height or less) focusing on overhung, strenuous movements, and does not require the considerable skill of placing and removing clean protective gear.

Some routes are partially bolt protected and partially gear protected. These are most commonly referred to as "mixed protection" routes.

The debate between Traditional, or Trad Climbers, and Sport Climbers continues to this day over what the acceptable usage of bolts for protection is. Most Traditional climbers believe that bolts should not be used on any route where clean protection is possible, in order to preserve the rock. Some sport climbers believe that all routes should be bolted completely so that gear placement skills are not necessary to attempt the climb.

The general ethic is very dependent upon the area in question and varies widely by region. Generally speaking, the traditional ethic holds in most areas, and bolts are not used for protection unless there is no other option.

Left to traditional clean climbers, major UK climbing areas—Malham Cove, for example—could have been climbed and still remain clear of expansion bolts. Despite this, bolting was permitted by the BMC on this Site of Special Scientific Interest

campus board

2008-11-18T00:35:00.000-08:00

A campus board is a training tool that has been widely adopted to improve rock climbing performance. Typically, a user ascends or decends the campus board using only their hands. Campus boards can take a variety of different forms and may incorporate a variety of materials. As one example, a campus board may comprise horizontal thin slats or rails of wood attached to an inclined board in a ladderlike configuration. However, some implementations may utilize bolt on climbing holds or sections of pipe. A campus board is generally set at overhanging angle of inclination that is between vertical and 20 degrees. One consideration for selecting the angle of inclination is the avoidance of any interference that may result between the user's legs and the campus board or wall.

The campus board was invented by Wolfgang Güllich in 1988 while he was training for a new route, Action Directe, which required extreme dynamic finger strength. The first campus board was hung at a university in a gym called The Campus Centre. Hence the term "campus" has been applied to the name of the training board, training method, and style of climbing, or "campusing" in which only the user's hands and arms are used.

There are a variety of training approaches that may be used with a campus board. As one example, a user may alternate the use of specific fingers to increase finger strength when ascending or descending the board. As another example, upper-body strength may be increased by utilizing large lunges between specific rails or holds of the campus board. Reactive training may be used to increase muscle recruitment by dynamically moving between the campus board rails simultaneously with both hands. Training on a campus board may result in better performance due to the improvement of motor training, increased finger strength on a variety grips, and greater power and lock-off strength of the arms. However, it should be appreciated that many top climbers do not utilize campus board training, nor does campus board training necessarily translate directly to improved performance on the rock.

In general, campus board training should only be attempted by climbers who already have a threshold level of strength, as the physical intensity of campusing can easily result in injury. While there is no right time to begin a campus board training regime, some have followed a general approach which requires the user to first be capable of bouldering at least V5, or climb at least French 6c

Boulder

2008-11-04T19:12:00.000-08:00

In geology, a boulder is a rock with grain size of usually no less than 256 mm (10 inches) diameter. While a boulder may be small enough to move or roll manually, others are extremely massive. In common usage, a boulder is too large for a person to move. Smaller boulders are usually just called rocks or stones. The word boulder comes from Middle English "bulder" which was probably of Scandinavian origin such as dialectal Swedish "bullersten" meaning "noisy stone" (Imagine a large stone in a stream, causing water to roar around it) from "bullra" (to roar, cf. Dutch "bulderen", with the same meaning) and "sten" (stone).

In places covered by ice sheets during Ice Ages, such as Scandinavia, northern North America, and Russia, ice has moved and formed granite boulders, also named glacial erratics. One of the largest is used as the pedestal of the Bronze Horseman in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

Some noted rock formations involve giant boulders exposed by erosion, such as the Devil's Marbles in Australia's Northern Territory, the Wairere Boulders in New Zealand, where an entire valley contains only boulders, and The Baths on the island of Virgin Gorda in the British Virgin Islands.

The climbing of large boulders often requires developing special abilities, and has given rise, since the late 19th century, to the sport of bouldering.

Blue ice (glacial)

2008-11-04T19:01:00.000-08:00

Blue ice occurs when snow falls on a glacier, is compressed, and becomes part of a glacier that winds its way toward a body of water (river, lake, ocean, etc.). During its travels, all of the air bubbles that are trapped in the ice are squeezed out, and the size of the ice crystals increases, making it clear.

In some areas, earthquakes have raised the blue ice above the ground and created formations much like large frozen waves.

The blue color is often wrongly attributed to Rayleigh scattering. Rather, the ice is blue for the same reason water is blue: it is a result of an overtone of a OH molecular stretch in the water which absorbs light at the red end of the visible spectrum.

Runways

Blue ice is exposed in areas of Antarctic where there is no net addition or subtraction of snow. That is, any snow that falls in that area is counteracted by sublimation or other losses. These areas have been used as runways due to their hard ice surface which is suitable for aircraft fitted with wheels rather than skis.

Action Directe (climb)

2008-11-03T20:03:00.000-08:00

Action Directe is a famously difficult sport climb in the Frankenjura, Germany.

It has been climbed by ten people.

The first ascent (FA) was by Wolfgang Güllich in 1991, who climbed the route using a 16 move sequence. Simpson and Koyamada used a different sequence with only 11 moves.

The repeat ascents were by:

* Alexander Adler on 9 September 1995.
* Iker Pou on 7 June 2000.
* Dave Graham on 21 May 2001.
* Christian Bindhammer on 14 May 2003.
* Rich Simpson on 13 October 2005.
* Dai Koyamada on 15 October 2005.
* Markus Bock on 22 October 2005.
* Kilian Fischhuber on 25 September 2006.
* Adam Ondra on 19 May 2008.
* Patxi Usobiaga on 24 October 2008.

Despite being generally recognized as the world's first 9a, Güllich actually gave the route a UIAA grade of XI, which corresponds to 8c+/5.14c.

It was the first recognised route of the grade, and is considered by many to be something of a benchmark for the grade. It is also famous for its style, involving long dynamic moves off single-finger pockets. Wolfgang Güllich invented the campus board to train the very specific technique needed for this route.

Black ice

2008-11-03T19:57:00.001-08:00

Black ice is ice frozen without many air bubbles trapped inside, making it transparent. Black ice takes the color of the material it lies on top of, often wet asphalt or a darkened pond. Its difficult-to-detect nature makes it a significant hazard to drivers, pedestrians, and sailors.
On Roads

Black ice, also known as "glare ice" or "clear ice," typically refers to a thin coating of glazed ice on a surface, often a roadway. While not truly black, it is transparent, allowing the usually-black asphalt/macadam roadway to be seen through it, hence the term. It is unusually slick compared to other forms of roadway ice.

Because it contains relatively little entrapped air in the form of bubbles, black ice is transparent and thus very difficult to see (as compared to snow, frozen slush). In addition, it often is interleaved with wet road, which is identical in appearance. For this reason it is especially hazardous when driving or walking because it is both hard to see and unexpectedly slick.

Bridges and overpasses can be especially dangerous. Black ice forms first on bridges and overpasses because air can circulate both above and below the surface of the elevated roadway, causing the pavement temperature to drop more rapidly. This is often indicated with "Bridge May Be Icy" warning signs.

Black ice may form even when the ambient temperature is several degrees above the NTP freezing point of water (0°C) if the air warms suddenly after a prolonged cold spell that leaves the surface of the roadway well below the freezing point temperature.

The term black ice is sometimes used to describe any type of ice that forms on roadways, even when standing water on roads turns to ice as the temperature falls below freezing. However, this use of the term black ice is not included in the American Meteorological Society Glossary of Meteorology.

A similar hazardous condition can also occur when diesel fuel spills onto a road surface because the lighter fractions evaporate quickly to leave a greasy slick which is difficult for oncoming drivers to spot in time to prevent skidding.
Ice skating

In New England, "black ice" refers to a clear type of pond ice that forms in very cold weather. Black ice has the appearance of thick, slightly cracked glass laid on the water, and its transparency reveals the darkness of the pond beneath: hence the name. Black ice is very hard and smooth, making gliding easier, but stopping slower and more difficult.

Thin, clear ice also has acoustic properties which are useful to tour skaters. Skating on clear ice radiates a tone whose frequency depends on the thickness of the ice.

Maritime black ice

Black ice is a danger for cold-weather fishing trawlers. As ice forms on its superstructure, a boat can become top heavy, and in rough weather this unbalanced extra weight may capsize it. Thick layers of black ice can form rapidly on boats where they encounter a combination of air temperatures cold enough to freeze seawater and rough seas that splash seawater over the entire boat.

Climbing command

2008-10-21T20:29:00.000-07:00

A climbing command is a short standard phrase used in climbing to ensure the smooth operation of the climbing system. Standard commands make it possible for climbers to work safely with each other, and for commands to be unambiguously understood when the wind is noisy.

Starting a climb

* "On belay" or "Climber ready" (US) or "Ready to climb" (UK): the climber wants to know if he is being belayed.
* "Belay on" (US) or "Climb when ready" (UK): the belayer is ready
* "Climbing": the climber beginning his/her ascent
* "Climb on" or "Climb away" (US) or "OK" (UK): acknowledgement of "Climbing!"

During a climb

* "Tension", "Up rope", "Take" (US) or "Take in" (UK): remove the slack in the rope between the belayer and the climber
* "Slack", "Down rope", "Give" (US) or "Give out" (UK): add more slack in the rope between the belayer and the climber.
* "Watch me!": climber is about to start a difficult section, and wants the belayer to pay extra attention.
* "Falling!": climber is falling or about to fall.

Ending a climb

* "Falling" (US) : when ready to descend.
* "Fall on" or "Fall away" (US) : the belayer's response to indicate he or she is ready.
* "Off Belay" (US) or "Safe" (UK): the climber has made a safe stance; the belayer can take a rest.
* "Dirt me" (US slang) or "Lower me" (US, UK): the belayer can start lowering off the climber.
* "Got me?": warning signal for the belayer to expect some weight on the rope

Other commands

* "Clipping" and "Clipped": An indication that the climber is placing/has placed protection or is attaching/has attached the rope to a bolt.
* "Rope" (US) or "Rope below" (UK): warning signal that the rope will hit the ground seconds after this is heard
* "Rock" (US) or "Below" (UK): warning signal of dislodged rock or dropped equipment falling down.
* "That's me!": an indication to a belayer that all the slack has been taken in and the belayer is now tugging on the actual climber

Arête

2008-09-20T21:50:00.000-07:00

An arête is a thin, almost knife-like, ridge of rock which is typically formed when two glaciers erode parallel U-shaped valleys. The arête is a thin ridge of rock that is left separating the two valleys. Arêtes can also form when two glacial cirques erode headwards towards one another, although frequently this results in a saddle-shaped pass, called a col. The edge is then sharpened by freeze-thaw weathering. The word "arête" is actually French for fishbone; similar features in the Alps are described with the German equivalent term Grat or Kamm (comb).

Where three or more cirques meet, a pyramidal peak is created.

Cleaver

A cleaver is a type of arête that separates a unified flow of glacial ice from its uphill side into two glaciers flanking, and flowing parallel to, the ridge. Cleaver gets its name from the way it resembles a meat cleaver slicing meat into two parts. A cleaver may be thought of as analogous to an island in a river. A common situation has the two flanking glaciers melting to their respective ends before their courses can bring them back together; the exceedingly rare analogy is a situation of the two branches of a river drying up, before the downstream tip of the island, by evaporation or absorption into the ground.

The location of a cleaver is often an important factor in the choice among routes for glacier flow. For example, following a cleaver up or down a mountain may avoid travelling on or under an unstable glacial, snow, or rock area. This is usually the case on those summer routes to the summit whose lower portions are on the south face of Mount Rainier: climbers traverse the "flats" of Ingraham Glacier, but ascend Disappointment Cleaver and follow its ridgeline rather than ascending the headwall either of that glacier or (on the other side of the cleaver) of Emmons Glacier.

Examples

Notable examples of arêtes include:

* Knife Edge, on Mount Katahdin, Maine
* Clouds Rest, in the Sierra Nevada, California
* The Minarets, in the Sierra Nevada, California
* The Garden Wall, in Glacier National Park, Montana
* Crib Goch, in Snowdonia National Park, Wales
* Striding Edge in the English Lake District
* The Catwalk, in the Olympic National Park, state of Washington

Anchor (climbing)

2008-09-20T21:35:00.000-07:00

In rock climbing, an anchor can be any way of attaching the climber, the rope, or a load to rock, ice, steep dirt, or a building by either permanent or temporary means. The goal of an anchor depends on the type of climbing under consideration but usually consists of stopping a fall, or holding a static load.

Types of anchors

Depending on the material being climbed, there are many types of protection that can be used to construct the anchor, including natural protection such as boulders and trees, or artificial protection such as cams, nuts, bolts or pitons.

Natural anchor

A natural anchor is one that does not require man-made climbing gear. Such anchors may consist of trees, chockstones already lodged in a crack, horns and protrusions, etc.

Artificial anchor

An artificial anchor consists of man-made climbing gear placed in the rock. Such gear may be spring loaded camming devices, aluminum chockstones, steel expansion bolts, pitons, etc.

Belay anchor

A belay anchor is used as a sole attachment to the cliff face, to support a belay or toprope. It should ideally be essentially foolproof, consisting of multiple redundant components (natural and/or artificial), none of which are likely to fail, and none of which in the event of failure would cause the entire anchor to fail. Any one component of a good anchor should be able to support the entire system by itself.

Running belay anchor

A running belay anchor is used as a safeguard in the event of a fall while lead climbing. Often hastily placed in the stress of the moment, these anchors are not as secure, or bombproof as belay anchors and cannot be relied on as sole attachment points to the rock. Running belay anchors must be backed up by other running belay anchors below should they fail.

Ice anchors

The ice picket is used as an anchor in mountaineering. It is driven into the snow and used to arrest falls.

Attachment to the anchor

Indirect

When the rope goes from the climber to the belayer. Most often used under controlled circumstances at climbing walls or when the climber doesn't have the weight advantage on the belayer during bottom roped climbs. It is impossible to escape from the system.

Semi-direct

When the rope comes from the climber to the belayer, but the belayer is attached separately to an anchor. Often used when multi pitching and the belayer is on a stance. Or when top roping and it is possible that if the climber falls the belayer will be pulled from the stance above the climber. The belayer can, with a little effort then remove themselves from the system if required. it is essential that the belayer is attached to the anchor via the belay loop at the front of the harness. Attaching the belayers harness to the anchor via the back of the harness can cause the harness, when placed under strain constrict inwards elongating front to back, rather than side to side. This can result in crushed pelvis' and serious harm to the belayer.

Direct

When the rope comes from the climber to an anchor. A hanging belay device may be used, although it is common in this instance to just use an Italian hitch. The belayer is totally free of the system.

Equalization

Anchor equalization is the process of combining two or more anchors in the build of a single equalized anchor. This is the method used in a redundant belay anchor, as mentioned above. If assembled correctly, the load can be distributed amongst the individual anchors, rather than placing all the load on a single anchor point. This decreases the chance that any of the anchor points will fail, and, if a point does fail, the other(s) should still be able to hold.

When forming an equalized anchor, it is important to take into consideration the angle formed between the two pieces of protection -- the "V-angle". One must try to minimize this angle as much as possible, because the greater the V-angle, the more force will be placed on each piece of protection. As shown below, if the V-angle is greater than 120 degrees, the load on each anchor comprising the equalized anchor will actually be greater than the load on the rope connected to the equalized anchor. This is a hazardous situation which makes it worse to use equalization than not at all, and should be avoided.

If the load force (To load in the image at right) is FLoad and the V-angle is θV, then the force on each anchor is given by:

Resulting from this expression, we can deduce:

* At a V-angle of 30 degrees, each of the two anchors bear a force of about 52% of the original load.
* At 45 degrees, each anchor bears about 54% of the load.
* At 60 degrees, each anchor bears about 58% of the load.
* At 90 degrees, each anchor bears about 71% of the load.
* At 120 degrees, each anchor bears a force equivalent to 100% of the original load. An angle this large should never be used.

Alpine style

2008-09-20T21:31:00.000-07:00

Alpine style refers to mountaineering in a self-sufficient manner, thereby carrying all of one's food, shelter, equipment etc. as one climbs, as opposed to expedition style (or siege style) mountaineering which involves setting up a fixed line of stocked camps on the mountain which can be accessed at one's leisure. Additionally, alpine style means the refusal of fixed ropes, high altitude porters and the use of supplemental oxygen.

Many consider Alpine style to be the purest form of mountaineering, setting a standard to which all mountaineers should aspire. This style became well-known and popular with Reinhold Messner, when he and Peter Habeler climbed Gasherbrum I without oxygen equipment in 1975. It was Hermann Buhl's idea to demonstrate Alpine style in the Karakoram at the successful Austrian Broad Peak expedition in 1957; in pure Alpine style the members of this expedition later climbed Skil Brum (Marcus Schmuck and Fritz Wintersteller) and approached Chogolisa (Hermann Buhl and Kurt Diemberger).

The benefits of alpine style are that, generally, much less time is spent on the route, reducing objective dangers such as avalanches or blizzards. This can be a major factor on routes with ice fields full of blocks of ice hundreds of feet tall which could fall at any time. Snow and ice conditions often change over the course of a day forcing climbing parties to climb in the early hours before the sun melts the snow or ice making it unsuitable and more susceptible to avalanche. This tendency to climb in the morning has led to the term "Alpine Start". An "Alpine Start" is a start that happens in the early morning ranging from 11:00 PM on long routes to not long before sunrise for shorter routes or faster parties. An "Alpine Start" must begin in the dark.

The problems encountered while alpine style climbing are related to lack of support. Without fixed ropes to retreat down in case of emergency, or a lower camp to return to, the commitment of alpine style is greater than expedition style in terms of the choice to ascend or descend. A climbing group caught at a point where conditions do not allow further ascent must consider other options such as an unplanned bivouac (perhaps without the appropriate gear), rappels (leaving multiple pieces of protection behind), or moving to another route from their current position (perhaps without adequate knowledge of the alternative route). However, alpine style often is cheaper and faster for those on a budget.

Mountain hut

2008-09-20T21:30:00.001-07:00

A Mountain hut (also known as alpine hut, mountain shelter, and mountain hostel) is a building located in the mountains intended to provide food and shelter to mountaineers, climbers and hikers. Mountain huts are usually operated by a section of an Alpine Club. Most mountain huts are tended to by Alpine Club personnel throughout the mountaineering season, who prepare meals and drinks for mountaineers, similar to a restaurant, but usually with a limited selection, as it is not always easy to transport the food to the hut. Furthermore, mountain huts provide simple sleeping berths. Any mountaineer is allowed to access Alpine huts, but members of an Alpine Club usually get a discount. Some huts in more remote areas have no personnel, but mountaineers are allowed to access them.

As there is a lot of mountaineering activity in the Alps, there is a large number of huts along the mountaineering paths. One cannot necessarily count on finding a similarly dense network of paths and huts in other mountain ranges.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland the tradition is of unwardened "climbing huts" providing fairly rudimentary accommodation (but superior to that of a bothy) close to a climbing ground; the huts are usually conversions (eg of former quarrymen's cottages, or of disused mine buildings), and are not open to passers-by except in emergency. Many climbing clubs in the UK have such huts in Snowdonia or in the Lake District. A well-known example is the 'Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut' (the 'CIC Hut') under the northern crags of Ben Nevis in Scotland - this is a purpose-built hut, high up the mountain, probably nearest in character to the Alpine huts.

Altitude sickness

2008-09-20T21:08:00.000-07:00

Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness (AMS), altitude illness, or soroche, is a pathological condition that is caused by acute exposure to low air pressure (usually outdoors at high altitudes). It commonly occurs above 2,400 metres (approximately 8,000 feet). Acute mountain sickness can progress to high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE).

The cause of altitude sickness is still not understood. It occurs in low atmospheric pressure conditions but not necessarily in low oxygen conditions at sea level pressure. Although treatable to some extent by the administration of oxygen, most of the symptoms do not appear to be caused by low oxygen, but rather by the low CO2 levels causing a rise in blood pH, alkalosis. The percentage of oxygen in air remains essentially constant with altitude at 21 percent, but the air pressure (and therefore the number of oxygen molecules) drops as altitude increases. Altitude sickness usually does not affect persons traveling in aircraft because modern aircraft passenger compartments are pressurized.

A related condition, occurring only after prolonged exposure to high altitude, is chronic mountain sickness, also known as Monge's disease.

An unrelated condition, although often confused with altitude sickness, is dehydration, due to the higher rate of water vapor lost from the lungs at higher altitudes.

Introduction

High altitude or mountain sickness is defined when someone feels sick at high altitudes, such as in the mountains or any other altitude-related sicknesses. It is hard to determine who will be affected by altitude-sickness as there are no specific factors that compare with this susceptibility to altitude sickness. However, most people can climb up to 2500 meters (8000 feet) normally.

Generally, different people have different susceptibilities to altitude sickness. For some otherwise healthy people, Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) can begin to appear at around 2000 meters (6,500 feet) above sea level, such as at many mountain ski resorts, equivalent to a pressure of 80 kPa. AMS is the most frequent type of altitude sickness encountered. Symptoms often manifest themselves 6-10 hours after ascent and generally subside in 1 to 2 days, but they occasionally develop into the more serious conditions. Symptoms include headache, fatigue, stomach illness, dizziness, and sleep disturbance. Exertion aggravates the symptoms.

High altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and cerebral edema (HACE) are the most ominous of these symptoms, while AMS, retinal hemorrhage, and peripheral edema are less severe forms of the disease. The rate of ascent, altitude attained, amount of physical activity at high altitude, as well as individual susceptibility, are contributing factors to the onset and severity of high-altitude illness.

Altitude sickness usually occurs following a rapid ascent and can usually be prevented by ascending slowly. In most of these cases, the symptoms are temporary and usually abate as altitude acclimatisation occurs. However, in extreme cases, altitude sickness can be fatal.

The word "soroche" came from South America and originally meant "ore", because of an old, incorrect belief that it was caused by toxic emanations of ores in the Andes mountains.

Signs and symptoms

Headache is a primary symptom used to diagnose altitude sickness, although headache is also a symptom of dehydration. A headache occurring at an altitude above 2,400 meters (8000 feet = 76 kPa), combined with any one or more of the following symptoms, can indicate altitude sickness:

* Lack of appetite, nausea, or vomiting
* Fatigue or weakness
* Dizziness or light-headedness
* Insomnia
* Pins and needles
* Shortness of breath upon exertion
* Persistent rapid pulse
* Drowsiness
* General malaise
* Peripheral edema (swelling of hands, feet, and face).

Symptoms that may indicate life-threatening altitude sickness include:

* pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs):-
o persistent dry cough
o fever
o shortness of breath even when resting
* cerebral edema (swelling of the brain):-
o headache that does not respond to analgesics
o unsteady gait
o increased vomiting
o gradual loss of consciousness.

Severe cases

The most serious symptoms of altitude sickness are due to edema (fluid accumulation in the tissues of the body). At very high altitude, humans can get either high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE). The physiological cause of altitude-induced edema is not conclusively established. It is currently believed, however, that HACE is caused by local vasodilation of cerebral blood vessels in response to hypoxia, resulting in greater blood flow and, consequently, greater capillary pressures. On the other hand, HAPE may be due to general vasoconstriction in the pulmonary circulation (normally a response to regional ventilation-perfusion mismatches) which, with constant or increased cardiac output, also leads to increases in capillary pressures. For those suffering HACE, dexamethasone may provide temporary relief from symptoms in order to keep descending under their own power.

HAPE occurs in ~2% of those who are adjusting to altitudes of ~3000 m (10,000 feet = 70 kPa) or more. It can progress rapidly and is often fatal. Symptoms include fatigue, severe dyspnea at rest, and cough that is initially dry but may progress to produce pink, frothy sputum. Descent to lower altitudes alleviates the symptoms of HAPE.

HACE is a life threatening condition that can lead to coma or death. It occurs in about 1% of people adjusting to altitudes above ~2700 m (9,000 feet = 73 kPa). Symptoms include headache, fatigue, visual impairment, bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, loss of coordination, paralysis on one side of the body, and confusion. Descent to lower altitudes may save those afflicted with HACE.

PREVENTION

Avoiding alcohol ingestion

As alcohol tends to dehydrate, avoidance in the first 24 hours at a higher altitude is optimal.

Strenous activity

People with recurrent AMS note that by avoiding strenuous activity such as skiing, hiking, etc in the first 24 hours at altitude reduces their problems.

Altitude acclimatization

Altitude acclimatisation is the process of adjusting to decreasing oxygen levels at higher elevations, in order to avoid altitude sickness. Once above approximately 3,000 meters (10,000 feet = 70 kPa), most climbers and high altitude trekkers follow the "golden rule" - climb high, sleep low. For high altitude climbers, a typical acclimatization regime might be to stay a few days at a base camp, climb up to a higher camp (slowly), then return to base camp. A subsequent climb to the higher camp would then include an overnight stay. This process is then repeated a few times, each time extending the time spent at higher altitudes to let the body adjust to the oxygen level there, a process that involves the production of additional red blood cells. Once the climber has acclimatised to a given altitude, the process is repeated with camps placed at progressively higher elevations. The general rule of thumb is to not ascend more than 300 metres (1,000 feet) per day to sleep. That is, one can climb from 3,000 (10,000 feet = 70 kPa) to 4,500 metres (15,000 feet = 58 kPa) in one day, but one should then descend back to 3,300 metres (11,000 feet = 67.5 kPa) to sleep. This process cannot safely be rushed, and this explains why climbers need to spend days (or even weeks at times) acclimatising before attempting to climb a high peak. Simulated altitude equipment that produce hypoxic (reduced oxygen) air can be used to acclimate to altitude, reducing the total time required on the mountain itself.

Altitude Acclimatization is necessary for some people who rapidly move from lower altitudes to more moderate altitudes, usually by aircraft and ground transportation over a few hours, such as from sea level to 7000 feet of many Colorado, USA mountain resorts. Stopping at an intermediate altitude overnight can reduce or eliminate a repeat episode of AMS.

Drugs

Acetazolamide may help some people to speed up the acclimatisation process when taken before arriving at altitude, and can treat mild cases of altitude sickness. A typical dose is 250mg twice daily starting the day before moving to altitude.

A single randomized controlled trial found that sumatriptan may help prevent altitude sickness.

For centuries, indigenous cultures of the Altiplano, such as the Aymaras, have used coca leaves to treat mild altitude sickness.

Oxygen enrichment

In high-altitude conditions, oxygen enrichment can counteract the effects of altitude sickness, or hypoxia. A small amount of supplemental oxygen reduces the equivalent altitude in climate-controlled rooms. At 3,400 m (67 kPa), raising the oxygen concentration level by 5 percent via an oxygen concentrator and an existing ventilation system provides an effective altitude of 3,000 m (70 kPa), which is more tolerable for surface-dwellers. The most effective source of supplemental oxygen at high altitude are oxygen concentrators that use vacuum swing adsorption (VSA) technology. As opposed to generators that use pressure swing adsorption (PSA), VSA technology does not suffer from performance degradation at increased altitude. The lower air density actually facilitates the vacuum step process.

Other methods

Drinking plenty of water will also help in acclimatisation to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities ("over-hydration") has no benefits and may lead to hyponatremia.

Oxygen from gas bottles or liquid containers can be applied directly via a nasal cannula or mask. Oxygen concentrators based upon PSA, VSA, or VPSA can be used to generate the oxygen if electricity is available. Stationary oxygen concentrators typically use PSA technology, which has performance degradations at the lower barometric pressures at high altitudes. One way to compensate for the performance degradation is to utilize a concentrator with more flow capacity. There are also portable oxygen concentrators that can be used on vehicle DC power or on internal batteries, and at least one system commercially available measures and compensates for the altitude effect on its performance up to 4,000 meters (13,123 feet). The application of high-purity oxygen from one of these methods increases the partial pressure of oxygen by raising the FIO2 (fraction of inspired oxygen).

Treatment

The only reliable treatment and in many cases the only option available is to descend. Attempts to treat or stabilise the patient in situ at altitude is dangerous unless highly controlled and with good medical facilities. However, the following treatments have been used when the patient's location and circumstances permit:

* Oxygen may be used for mild to moderate AMS below 12,000 feet and is commonly provided by physicians at mountain resorts. Symptoms abate in 12-36 hours without the need to descend.
* For more serious cases of AMS, or where rapid descent is impractical, a Gamow bag, a portable plastic pressure bag inflated with a foot pump, can be used to reduce the effective altitude by as much as 1,500 meters (5,000 feet). A Gamow bag is generally used only as an aid to evacuate severe AMS patients not to treat them at altitude.
* Acetazolamide may assist in altitude aclimatisation but is not a reliable treatment for established cases of even mild altitude sickness.
* Some claim that mild altitude sickness can be controlled by consciously taking 10-12 large, rapid breaths every 5 minutes, (hyperventilation) but this claim lacks both empirical evidence and a plausible medical reason as to why this should be effective. If overdone, this can remove too much carbon dioxide causing hypocapnia.
* The folk remedy for altitude sickness in Ecuador , Peru and Bolivia is a tea made from the coca plant. See mate de coca.
* Other treatments include injectable steroids to reduce pulmonary edema, this may buy time to descend but treats a symptom, it does not treat the underlying AMS.

Alpine butterfly knot

2008-09-08T00:50:00.000-07:00

The Butterfly Loop, also known as the Lineman's Loop or alpine butterfly loop, is a "non-jamming loop on the bight": a loop which may be tied in a rope with two fixed ends, and can take loads on both ends of the original rope, and on the loop. The alpine butterfly loop is a symmetrical and more secure version of the butterfly loop.

Usage

The Butterfly Loop has a high breaking strength and is regarded by mountaineers as one of the strongest knots to attach climbers to the middle of a rope, such that they have room to move around even when the main rope goes tight, and they can be supported in either direction from the main rope. The loop is typically attached to a climbing harness by carabiner.

It can also be used to isolate a worn section of rope, where the knot is tied such that the worn section is used for the centre of the loop (which of course does not receive a carabiner or bears any loads in this case).

Advantages

* Does not reduce the strength of the rope by very much
* Will not slip (after initial settling)
* Allows for the knot to be loaded three ways (each end of the main line and by the loop)
* Relatively easy to undo after loading (more difficult if wet)
* Very easy to adjust the size of the bight

Disadvantages

* Difficult to tie one-handed
* Difficult to casually inspect
* Requires some training/practice to master

Single Rope Technique

2008-09-05T23:40:00.001-07:00

Single Rope Technique (SRT) is a set of methods used to descend and ascend ropes. SRT is used in caving, potholing, rock climbing, rope rescue, roped access for building maintenance and by arborists for tree climbing.

American caver Bill Cuddington, known as "Vertical Bill", developed the SRT in the late 1950s, thus earning him the additional moniker of "father of vertical caving". The name, however, was coined by Bruce Bedford as editor of Descent magazine.

.....Technique.....

Ascent

For ascent (prusiking or "jugging"), cammed devices (ascenders) are used that can be pushed up the rope but that lock and hold the user's weight when a downward force is applied; these must also be easily removable from the rope without being detached from the user. Knots such as the Prusik, Bachmann and Klemheist are used to ascend ropes in emergencies in climbing and mountaineering; they have ceased to be the primary ascent method in SRT because they are slow in use, and ice or mud greatly reduce their efficacy.

Numerous prusik systems have been devised. Popular systems are:

* Sit-stand systems (also known as frog rig) - One ascender is at chest level attached to the sit-harness, and a second is held in the hand with a long loop of rope for the feet. Movement up the rope is by repeated moving of the foot-loop ascender up the rope, pushing up with both feet together, and sitting, supported by the chest ascender. This motion appears like a frog kick.
* Rope-walking systems - One ascender attached directly to one foot, and the second connected to the other foot by a rope with the ascender higher up to avoid clashing. Movement up the rope is by alternate stepping movements with the feet.

In general, while rope-walking techniques may be very effective for climbing long unobstructed pitches, they prove less versatile in cases of awkward passages and complex rope rigging with rebelays used to avoid hazards such as loose rocks, waterfalls, and rope damage from rub points.

Sit-stand systems are almost universally favored in Europe due to the conditions and the tradition of rigging to avoid rub points which allows for lighter weight ropes.

Many cavers in the southeastern USA favor rope-walking systems due to the enormous pitches, and have traditionally used simple rope rigging, with the rope anchored only at the top of the pitch and touching the rocks all the way down. This is sometimes pejoratively called Indestructible Rope Technique.

Descent

Descent (abseiling or rappeling) uses various forms of friction brake to control speed. The most commonly used are the Petzl Stop (self-locking) and Bobbin, and rappel racks. For safe SRT, especially on drops with complex rigging with intermediate belays, it is essential that the abseiling device can be removed from the rope without being unclipped from the harness.

Equipment

Modern SRT uses specialised devices for both descent and ascent, and low-stretch kernmantel rope of 8 mm-11 mm diameter.

Other essential items of a personal SRT set are a sit harness and one or more safety cords ("cows-tails") terminated in carabiners, for temporary attachment to safety ropes at the heads of drops and used in manoeuvres at intermediate rope belays.

Abseiling

2008-09-05T22:23:00.000-07:00

Abseiling (German: abseilen, "to rope down"), rappelling in American English, is the controlled descent down a rope in rock climbing, mountaineering, caving, and canyoneering; the technique is used when a cliff or slope is too steep and/or dangerous to descend without protection. Abseiling is used chiefly in British English, while other Anglophone countries use different terms.

Slang terms

Slang terms for the technique include: rapping or rap jumping (American slang), abbing (British slang for "abseiling"), jumping (Australian slang), roping down, roping, seiling (Australian slang), snapling (Israeli slang), rappling (Hindi slang).

History

The origin of the abseil is attributed[2] to Jean Estéril Charlet, a Chamonix guide who lived from 1840-1925. Charlet originally devised the technique of the abseil (or rappel) method of roping down during a failed solo attempt of Petit Dru in 1876. After many attempts, some of them solo, he managed to summit the Petit Dru in 1879 in the company of two other Chamonix guides, Prosper Payot and Frédéric Folliguet, whom he hired (a rather paradoxical move for a guide). During that ascent, Charlet perfected the abseil.

Equipment

* Helmets are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. A light source may be mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free in unlit areas.
* Gloves protect hands from the rope and from hits with the wall. They are mainly used by recreational abseilers, industrial access practitioners, adventure racers and military as opposed to climbers or mountaineers. In fact, they can increase the risk of accident by becoming caught in the descender in certain situations.
* Boots or other sturdy footwear with good grips.
* Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular in some applications for the protection of joints during crawls or hits.
* Ropes used for descending are typically of Kernmantle rope construction, with a multi-strand core protected by an abrasion-resistant woven sheath. For most applications, low-stretch rope (typically ~2% stretch when under the load of a typical bodyweight) called static rope is used to reduce bouncing and to allow easier ascending of the rope.
* A harness is used around the waist to secure the descender. A comfortable harness is important for descents that may take many hours.
* A descender or rappel device is a friction device or friction hitch that allows for rope to be paid out in a controlled fashion, under load, with a minimal effort by the person controlling it. The speed at which the rappeller descends is controlled by applying greater or lesser force on the rope below the device or altering the angle at which the rope exits the device. Descenders can be task-designed or improvised from other equipment:
o Mechanical descenders include braking bars, the figure eight, the abseil rack, the "bobbin" (and its self-locking variant the "stop"), the gold tail, and the "sky genie" used by some window-washers and wildfire firefighters.
o Some improvised descenders include the Munter hitch, a carabiner wrap, the basic crossed-carabiner brake and the piton bar brake (sometimes called the carabiner and piton). There is an older, more uncomfortable, method of wrapping the rope around one's body for friction, as in the Dulfersitz or Geneva methods used by climbers in the 1960s.

Application

Abseiling is used in a number of applications, including:

* Rock climbers returning to the base of a climb or to a point where they then try a new route.
* Recreational abseilers, who return to the top of the line by track, stairs or other methods and abseil again.
* Recreational canyoners, who travel down mountainous watercourses where waterfalls or cliffs may need to be descended and simply jumping is too dangerous or impossible.
* Recreational caving, where underground pitches are accessed using this method (Single Rope Technique).
* Adventure racers, whose events often including abseiling and other rope work.
* Industrial/Commercial workers, who use abseiling techniques to access parts of structures or buildings so as to perform maintenance, cleaning or construction. (eg window cleaners, railway scalers, quarry workers, etc.)
* Access to wildfires or wilderness rescue/paramedic operations by rapelling from a hovering helicopter.
* Confined spaces access, such as investigating ballast tanks and other areas of ships.
* Rescue applications, such as accessing injured people or accident sites (vehicle or aircraft) and extracting the casualty using abseiling techniques.
* Steeplejacking, as a replacement for bosun's chair.
* Military and police applications, such as entering a building through a window or hard to reach spaces via aircraft. This is a technique used by special forces and SWAT teams.

Abseiling can be a dangerous sport, and presents risks, especially to unsupervised or inexperienced climbers. Abseiling is, in fact, viewed by climbers as being more dangerous than climbing itself, as the rope system is taking the weight of the practitioner constantly rather than only in the event of a fall. Moreover, a high percentage of mishaps classified as "climbing accidents" actually occur when abseiling.

Abseiling is prohibited or discouraged in some areas, due to the potential for rock erosion and/or conflict with climbers heading upwards.

Backpacking (wilderness)

2008-06-09T22:30:00.000-07:00

Backpacking (US; tramping, trekking, or bushwalking in other countries) combines hiking and camping in a single trip. A backpacker hikes into the backcountry to spend one or more nights there, and carries supplies and equipment to satisfy sleeping and eating needs.
Definition
A backpacker packs all of his or her gear into a backpack. This gear must include food, water, and shelter, or the means to obtain them, but very little else, and often in a more compact and simpler form than one would use for stationary camping. A backpacking trip must include at least one overnight stay in the wilderness (otherwise it is a day hike). Many backpacking trips last just a weekend (one or two nights), but long-distance expeditions may last weeks or months, sometimes aided by planned food and supply drops.

Backpacking camps are more spartan than ordinary camps. In areas that experience a regular traffic of backpackers, a hike-in camp might have a fire ring and a small wooden bulletin board with a map and some warning or information signs. Many hike-in camps are no more than level patches of ground without scrub or underbrush. In very remote areas, established camps do not exist at all, and travelers must choose appropriate camps themselves.

In some places, backpackers have access to lodging that are more substantial than a tent. In the more remote parts of Great Britain, bothies exist to provide simple (free) accommodation for backpackers. Another example is the High Sierra Camps in Yosemite National Park. Mountain huts provide similar accommodation in other countries, so being a member of a mountain hut organization is advantageous (perhaps required) to make use of their facilities. On other trails (e.g. the Appalachian Trail) there are somewhat more established shelters of a sort that offer a place for weary hikers to spend the night without needing to set up a tent.

Most backpackers purposely try to avoid impacting on the land through which they travel. This includes following established trails as much as possible, not removing anything, and not leaving residue in the backcountry. The Leave No Trace movement offers a set of guidelines for low-impact backpacking ("Leave nothing but footprints. Take nothing but photos. Kill nothing but time. Keep nothing but memories").
Professional backpacking
For some people, backpacking is a necessary and integral part of their job.

In the US military a framed backpack is referred to as a "rucksack" or simply a "ruck". Soldiers who serve in the militaries of most nation-states usually receive at least some rudimentary backpacking training while infantrymen are often trained to a more advanced backpacking skill level. They share many common attributes with amateur backpackers: being self-contained, use of land-navigation skills and actively minimizing their environmental foot-print. There are, however, a few differences -- such as the need to carry weapons, ammunition, and communication equipment, and sometimes the need to maintain "noise and light discipline", which means remaining silent and in darkness to avoid detection.

Other professional backpackers may be scientific and academic researchers, professional guides, photographers, park-rangers and "search & rescue" personnel.
Motivation
People are drawn to backpacking primarily for recreation, to explore places that they consider beautiful and fascinating, many of which cannot be accessed in any other way. A backpacker can travel deeper into remote areas, away from people and their effects, than a day-hiker can. However, backpacking presents more advantages besides distance of travel. Many weekend trips cover routes that could be hiked in a single day, but people choose to backpack them anyway, for the experience of staying overnight.

These possibilities come with disadvantages. The weight of a pack, laden with supplies and gear, forces backpackers to travel more slowly than day-hikers would, and it can become a nuisance and a distraction from enjoying the scenery. In addition, camp chores (such as pitching camp, breaking camp, and cooking) can easily consume several hours every day. However, with practice, much of this "0 time" can be purged from the day.

Backpackers face many risks, including adverse weather, difficult terrain, treacherous river crossings, and hungry or unpredictable animals (although the perceived danger from wild animals usually greatly exceeds the true risk). They are subject to illnesses, which run the gamut from simple dehydration to heat exhaustion, hypothermia, altitude sickness, and physical injury. The remoteness of backpacking locations exacerbates any mishap. However, these hazards do not deter backpackers who are properly prepared. Some simply accept danger as a risk that they must endure if they want to backpack; for others, the potential dangers actually enhance the allure of the wilderness.
Equipment
Almost all backpackers seek to minimize the weight and bulk of gear carried. A lighter pack causes less fatigue, injury and soreness, and allows the backpacker to travel longer distances. Every piece of equipment is evaluated for a balance of utility versus weight. Significant reductions in weight can usually be achieved with little sacrifice in equipment utility, though very lightweight equipment is usually significantly more costly.

A large industry has developed to provide lightweight gear and food for backpackers. The gear includes the backpacks themselves, as well as ordinary camping equipment modified to reduce the weight, by either reducing the size, reducing the durability, or using lighter materials such as special plastics, alloys of aluminium, titanium, composite materials, impregnated fabrics and carbon fiber. Designers of portable stoves and tents have been particularly ingenious. Homemade gear is common too, such as the beverage-can stove.

Some backpackers use lighter and more compact gear than do others. The most radical measures taken in this regard are sometimes called ultralight backpacking.

Due to the emphasis on weight reduction, a practical joke common in some circles is to secretly pack a small but relatively heavy luxury item, such as a soft drink, into another backpacker's pack. Then, once the group stops for a rest, the perpetrator retrieves the item, thanks the bearer for carrying it, and consumes it.
Water

Backpackers often carry some water from the trailhead, to drink while walking. For short trips, they may carry enough to last the whole trip, but for long trips this is not practical. A backpacker needs anywhere from 2 to 8 L (roughly 1/2 to 2 gallons) or more per day, depending on conditions, making a water supply for more than a few days prohibitively heavy.

Backpackers may carry one to four litres of water, depending on conditions and availability. Although some backpacking camps in heavily-used areas provide potable water, it must usually be obtained from lakes and streams.

According to health and medical experts, untreated water found in backcountry settings in the U.S. and Canada is generally quite safe to drink. [1] Yet despite this, many backpackers believe that drinking and cooking water nearly always needs treatment with a filter or chemical tablets to protect against bacteria and protozoa (see Potability of backcountry water and Portable water purification).

If water is unavailable, or if the only water available is irreparably filthy, backpackers may need to carry large amounts of water for long distances.

Water may be stored in bottles or in soft, collapsible hydration packs (bladders). Some backpackers store water in ordinary plastic beverage bottles, while others use special Lexan bottles or metal canteens. For accessibility they may be carried by a shoulder strap or attached to the outside of a pack. Bladders are typically made of plastic, rubber, and/or fabric. They are light, easily stored and collapsible. They may be equipped with drinking hoses for easy access while hiking. In spite of this convenience, bladders are more prone to leaking than bottles, particularly at the hose connections. Hoses also allow the hiker to lose track of the water supply in the bladder and to deplete it prematurely.

Food (for more, click here)

Some backpackers enjoy cooking elaborate meals with fresh ingredients, particularly on short trips, and others carry the gear and take the time to catch fish or hunt small game for food. However, especially for long expeditions, most backpackers' food criteria are roughly the same: high energy content (particularly protein), with long shelf life and low mass and volume. An additional concern is weight; while Dutch oven and campfire cookery are historically popular, small liquid-fuel campstoves and ultralight cooking pots made of aluminum or titanium are more common in modern usage due to weight limitations and fire restrictions in many locales.

Ordinary household foods used on backpacking trips include cheese, bread, sausage, fruit, peanut butter, and pasta. Popular snack foods include trail mix, easily prepared at home; convenient and nutritious energy bars, chocolate, and other forms of candy, which provide quick energy and flavor. Traditional outdoor food includes dried foodstuffs such as jerky or pemmican, and also products like oatmeal (which can also be consumed raw in emergency situations).

Most backpackers avoid canned food, except for meats or small delicacies. Metal cans and their contents are usually heavy, and, like all trash, the empties must be carried back out.

For dinners, many hikers use specially manufactured, pre-cooked food that can be eaten hot. It is often sold in large, stiff bags that double as eating vessels. One common variety of special backpacking food is freeze-dried food, which can be quickly reconstituted by adding hot water. One can also purchase a commercial food dehydrator which removes the majority of water from a pre-cooked meal. To eat, water is mixed in with the meal several hours before eating and allowed to rehydrate before heating. Some various distributors of this are Backpackers Pantry and Mountain Outfitters. Another kind of special backpacking food is UHT-packaged without dehydration, and can be reheated with a special, water-activated chemical heater. This technology originated with the U.S. military's Meal Ready-to-Eat ("MRE"), but is now produced also for the commercial market. The small chemical heater obviates the need for a portable stove and fuel, however the added weight of the MRE's and their packaging reduce the weight advantage. MRE's can be useful to backpackers for several reasons:

* They do not need to be rehydrated or heated which is useful in areas where flame is not allowed, and water is scarce (Most of Australia)
* They are very durably packaged
* A single MRE contains a full meal complete with snack and desert
* They offer a great deal of variety in each meal, including condiments
* They are individually packaged inside the "brown plastic wrapper", so you can place individual components in various pockets and "eat on the move".

As more and more "big box" retail stores carry pre-packaged dehydrated foods (such as Mountain House Brand) however, it is becoming increasingly easier to buy packaged meals retail versus mail order, whereas MRE's are rarely carried in retail stores.

There is a genre of cookbooks specializing in trailside food and the special challenges inherent in backcountry cooking. Most such cookbooks espouse one of two philosophies; the first, generally used on short trips, involves planning out meals and preparing many ingredients in one's home kitchen before departure. The second method, bulk rationing, simply supplies the hiker with ingredients, allowing on-trail cooking with minimal prior planning, and is sometimes used for extended outings. A third form of the genre deals in Dutch oven cookery, which has considerable historical cachet (especially in countries such as the United States with a long pioneer tradition), but is dependent on suitable locations for a campfire.

Winter backpacking
Although backpacking in the winter is rewarding, it can be dangerous and generally requires more gear. Backpackers may need skis or snowshoes to traverse deep snow, or crampons to cross ice in colder climates. Cotton clothing, which absorbs moisture and chills the body, is particularly dangerous in cold weather, so backpackers stick to synthetic materials or materials that won't hold moisture. Special low-temperature sleeping bags and tents can be expensive, but will be more comfortable than many layers of warm clothing. However when hiking in cold weather it is always better to hike with varying layers of clothing so that as the body heats up layers can be taken off without causing the wearer to sweat or become very chilled.

Skills and safety

* Survival skills are handy for peace of mind: In case the weather, terrain or environment is more challenging than prepared for, or for dealing with shortcomings in
* Navigation and orienteering are useful to find the trailhead, then find and follow a route to a desired sequence of destinations, and then an exit. In case of disorientation, orienteering skills are important to determine where you are and formulate a route to somewhere more desirable. At their most basic, navigation skills allow you to choose the correct sequence of trails to follow.
* First Aid: effectively dealing with minor injuries (splinters, punctures, sprains) is considered by many a fundamental backcountry skill. More subtle, but maybe even more important, is recognizing and promptly treating hypothermia, heat stroke, dehydration and hypoxia, as these are rarely encountered in daily life.
* Leave No Trace is the backpacker's version of the golden rule: To have beautiful and pristine places to enjoy, help make them. At a minimum, don't make them worse.
* Distress signaling is a skill of last resort.

Outdoor cooking

2008-06-09T22:25:00.000-07:00

Outdoor cooking differs substantially from kitchen-based cooking, the most obvious difference being lack of an easily defined kitchen area. As a result, campers and backpackers have developed a significant body of techniques and specialized equipment for preparing food in outdoors environments. Such techniques have traditionally been associated with nomadic cultures such as the Berbers of North Africa and the Plains Indians and pioneers of North America, and have been carried down to and refined in modern times for use during recreational outdoors pursuits.

Currently, much of the work of maintaining and developing outdoor cooking traditions in Westernized countries is done by the Scouting movement and by wilderness educators such as the National Outdoor Leadership School and Outward Bound, as well as by writers and cooks closely associated with the outdoors community.

Food and recipes

The type of food common in outdoors settings is somewhat different from what is normally available in a kitchen, and also differs depending on the type of activity the cook is engaging in. While someone at a public campground may have easy access to a grocery store and be able to prepare plenty of recipes with fresh meat and vegetables, someone on an extended trip into the backcountry will not be able to carry large amounts of fresh food due to water content, and will have to rely heavily on dried meats, vegetables, and starches such as ramen, polenta, and dried potato flakes. Wilderness experts in both categories sometimes make use of locally available wild foods as well, particularly wild vegetables and fruit but also occasionally fresh fish and wild game; however, it is not unusual for camping food, especially backcountry food, to be partially or totally vegetarian.

Camping food is often very high in fat and carbohydrates to provide energy for long hikes, and hikers (much like soldiers) must rely heavily on energy-packed snacks such as trail mix, chocolate, energy bars, and even synthetics such as sports drinks. Water can also be at a premium, so important parts of a camper's pantry include chlorine or iodine-based water disinfectants as well as drink mixes to mask the flavor of the chemical treatment.

Recipes are often designed with significant planning and home preparation in mind, with certain ingredients mixed at home and then cooked on the trail; to that end, there are a number of providers of freeze-dried food, both ingredients and full meals, to the outdoors market, and just-add-water instant meals (including hot cereals, pasta or rice in sauce, and instant soup) from the supermarket are popular as well. Alternately, some wilderness experts advocate bulk rationing, in which each hiker is given a selection of raw ingredients and prepares a meal from scratch on the trail.

Methods

Direct heat

The most traditional method for outdoor cooking (and indeed the oldest known form of cooking to humanity) is by means of a campfire. Campfires can be used for cooking food by a number of techniques. The techniques for cooking on a campfire are no different from those used for everyday cooking before the invention of stoves or where stoves are still not available. Individuals who are backpacking in an area that allows the gathering of firewood may decide to cook on a campfire to avoid the need to carry extra equipment; however, most campfire cooking is done in front-country campgrounds. Cooking food using a campfire can be tricky for those not accustomed to it; also, due to risk of fire damage, campfires are illegal in many areas, so many campers prefer to use a portable stove instead.

Roasting

Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is popular for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. Besides skewers, pie irons too may be used (small iron molds with long handles), into which can be placed slices of bread with some form of filling — which are placed over hot coals to cook. When using meat, roasting can have the advantage over grilling in that the grease that drips from the food can be reused. This can be done by placing a fireproof container under the food.

Grilling

Grills are also simpler to use and they tend to make the food pick up flavors from the smoke. Grills over a campfire are used in the same way as ordinary charcoal barbecues. If the food is simply placed on the grill, it may catch fire so it requires constant attention. Handleheld grills that clamp over the food may be used for various tasks like warming food, grilling burgers or sausages or making toast. In cases where open fires are not allowed, lightweight charcoal grills (sometimes considered a type of hibachi) are sometimes used for direct grilling of food.

Frying

Frying is not always necessary, but is often used for fish or wild game caught while on the trip, as well as certain kinds of bread and desserts made on the trail. Camp frying pans often lack handles for easy packing, with the camp cook using a clamp-like device to pick up and move the pan. As a general rule, the frying medium used in camp cooking is usually either vegetable oil or margarine, since most animal fats such as butter or lard are not sufficiently shelf-stable for camp use.

Camp frying pans are generally made out of very thin metal (though some campers do use cast iron pans for this purpose as well), so extra care must be taken to evenly cook the food, especially over the small-diameter flame of a portable stove. A "round the clock" technique, where the frying pan is moved repeatedly to expose different parts of its base to the flame, is the most commonly recommended solution to the problem, though it is also possible to use a flame diffuser to achieve the same effect. For campfire use, on the other hand, some camp cooks prefer a legged cast-iron pan called a "spider", which is elevated to allow a small fire directly beneath it.

An improvised griddle can be made by putting a flat stone directly on the fire (or above it, on top of other stones). Food is then placed on the stone.

Boiling

In backpacking particularly, boiling water is the most common kitchen operation undertaken on the trail, used for cooking or reconstituting food, making hot beverages, cleaning up, and even sanitizing drinking water. Portable stoves are therefore generally rated in terms of how quickly they can boil a liter (or other appropriate size) of water; indeed, some commercial stove models are specifically optimized for fast boiling, with other operations such as frying or baking being an afterthought.

Like camp frying pans, camp pots are generally made of very lightweight material (often aluminum or, at a considerable price premium, titanium). Though less of a worry given the thermal mass of water, the camp cook must still take care not to allow food to burn, since the pot itself has very little mass to spread the heat out.

Alternately, a fireproof container (e.g. mess can, bamboo segment or improvised tree bark pot) is placed (or hung) above the fire.

Dutch ovens and other pots

Closely associated with the American Old West, the Dutch oven of tradition is a heavy cast iron or cast aluminum pot, traditionally made with three short legs and a concave cover for holding hot coals on top. While such pots are generally considered too heavy for backpackers, Dutch ovens are often used in group camp-outs and cookouts.

A pot hanging over the fire, although picturesque, may spill, and the rigging may be difficult to construct from found wood. Generally this is done with metal rigging, much of it identical to that historically used in home fireplaces before the invention of stoves. Two vertical iron bars with an iron cross-piece allow pots to be hung at various heights or over different temperatures of fire. Griddles, grills and skewers can also be hung over the fire. When working with wood, one may use two tripods, lashed with tripod lashings, but the rope will be liable to melt or burn. Dovetail joints are more secure, but difficult to carve.

A good alternative to cooking with a tripod is to cook directly upon the fire itself. To do this properly the fire needs to have a reasonable bed of coals and to have burned down to the point where it is not a roaring fire. While the pot may be set directly upon the coals, this is not preferable since that will tend to extinguish the coals. To lift the pot up off the fire, often two small logs of similar size may be used on either side of the pot; camp-style Dutch ovens have three legs built into the pot to perform this function. This allows continued airflow through the fire while providing optimal heat. The one down side to this form of cooking is that the pots will become blackened with soot and ash, which can be difficult to scrub off. The ash and soot build up can be easily avoided by applying a thin layer of dish soap (preferably biodegradable) to the outside of the pot before cooking. The ash and soot will stick to the soap which is then easily rinsed off later.

Steaming

With plants such as bamboo, steaming too is possible. In this method, a piece of bamboo is set diagonally above a fire. The bamboo is perforated from within (between the joints) and water is placed in the lowest bamboo segment. Food (e.g. rice) is then placed in the top segment which is steamed due to the water evaporating (because of the fire) in the lowest segment.

Other covered techniques

The original form of covered cooking is the earth oven, simply a covered pit with a fire built in it, demonstrated in techniques such as the Polynesian umu, the central Asian tandoori, and the Native American clambake.

Another commonly used technique is the baking of food in aluminum foil packets. Food is wrapped inside a durable packet of tin or aluminum foil, crimped to seal, and placed on or under hot coals. Baked potatoes are commonly cooked this way but entire meals can be cooked in one packet. Besides aluminum or tin, organic material (tree leaves) are also frequently employed. Tree leaves such as those from the banana tree do not burn/ignite as they contain enough oil to resist the heat from the flames (at least until the frying is complete). The way to adapt recipes where food is wrapped in foil is to use a barrier such as baking or silicone paper between the food and the foil; the overall technique is similar to the en papillote technique developed in French cuisine, but uses a more robust container.

Other simple methods include clay wrapping food (such as in the kleftiko method used in Greek cuisine), leaf wrapping, and plank grilling, where food is cooked on a wooden plank set vertically next to the fire. Hot-stone cooking, where food is placed on a heated stone next to or even in the fire or where fire-heated stones are dropped into a pot are other methods.

Long-distance truckers, automotive travelers and rally racers have occasionally resorted to cooking on accessible sections of the vehicle engine; the book Manifold Destiny, though written to a certain extent as a humor book, is considered the authoritative reference on the subject. The food is usually wrapped in several layers of aluminum foil and secured onto the engine block or other hot parts of the engine.

In some areas where there is a significant amount of steady, less-hazardous volcanic activity, lava cooking (invented in Hawaii) is sometimes practiced as a novelty.The food does not come in direct contact with the molten rock, instead being wrapped in a moist barrier (usually wet tropical leaves such as banana foliage or ti leaves). The wrapper is sacrificial, and is chipped or otherwise cleaned off along with the cooled lava before serving.

Specialist equipment

Dutch ovens were traditionally specially designed for camping, and such pots (often with legs and a handle, both for suspending the pot over a fire) are still widely available, though sometimes at a premium over flat-bottomed stovetop models. The oven is placed in a bed of hot coals, often from a keyhole fire with additional coals placed on top of the lid, which in camp ovens usually has a raised rim to keep the coals from falling off. Dutch ovens are made of cast iron or aluminum, and are generally not considered suitable for backpacking due to the heavy weight of the pot. Dutch ovens are convenient for cooking dishes that take a long time such as stews, joints of meat and baked goods. They are not the only option for baking on a campout as devices for baking on portable stoves exist and clay ovens can be constructed at longer encampments.

Portable stoves are widely used in areas where fuel such as wood is scarce or there is a significant fire or environmental hazard to building a campfire. Such devices usually use a liquid fuel (usually a petroleum derivative or some kind of alcohol), but gaseous fuels like propane and solid fuels such as wood shavings and hexamine are also used depending on the stove design; while two-burner models are commonly used for front-country campstoves and function much like residential gas stoves, backpacking stoves generally put out a much more concentrated and less powerful flame and require lightweight cooking equipment made of aluminum or titanium rather than more typical kitchen-type utensils.

In addition, there are often special techniques for baked goods made on the trail in the absence of specialized camp oven equipment, including flipping over the (lidded) pan while on the heat and the "twiggy fire", which mimics the use of charcoal on the lid of a Dutch oven using a small campfire on the lid of the pan.

Reflector ovens are placed on the ground next to the fire, and gather thermal radiation from it.

Solar cookers are sometimes used in places where absolutely minimal environmental impact is required.

Dangers

Special precautions are required for camping in bear country because cooking activities and food storage attract these potentially dangerous animals. Food preparation and storage must be located a safe distance from sleeping areas, so a fire near camp cannot be used for cooking. Food needs to be stored in bear cans or bear bags hung from a tree or post. Other animals may be attracted to food too; most notably raccoons, squirrels, skunks, and mice.

Camping

2008-06-09T20:59:00.000-07:00

Camping is an outdoor recreational activity.

The participants, known as campers, get away from urban areas, their home region or civilization in general and enjoy nature while spending one or more nights, usually at a campsite. Camping may involve the use of a tent, a primitive structure, or no shelter at all.

Camping as a recreational activity became popular in the early 20th century. Campers frequent national parks, other publicly owned natural areas, and privately owned campgrounds.

Camping is also used as a cheap form of accommodation for people attending large open air events such as sporting meetings and music festivals. Organisers will provide a field and some basic amenities.
Definition

Camping describes a wide range of activities. Survivalist campers set off with little more than their boots, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be an end unto itself, but often it is done in conjunction with other activities, such as hiking, hill walking, climbing, canoeing, mountain biking, swimming, and fishing. It may be combined with hiking either as backpacking or as a series of day hikes from a central location.

Some people vacation in permanent camps with cabins and other facilities (such as hunting camps or children's summer camps), but a stay at such a camp is usually not considered 'camping'. The term camping (or camping out) may also be applied to those who live outdoors out of necessity (as in the case of the homeless) or for people waiting overnight in very long lines (queues). It does not, however, apply to cultures whose technology does not include sophisticated dwellings. Camping may be referred to colloquially as roughing it.
Range of amenities

Campers span a broad range of ability and ruggedness, and campsites are designed accordingly. Many campgrounds have sites with special facilities such as fire rings, barbecue grills, bathrooms and utilities, but not all campsites have similar levels of development. Campsites can range from a patch of dirt with a sign marking it to a level, paved pad with sewer and electricity. For more on facilities, see the campsite article. Rugged campers believe that provisions for comfort detract from the experience of being out-of-doors, but such amenities do avoid some hazards of outdoor activities.

On the side of high amenities is camping in recreational vehicles (RVs), essentially wheeled houses. Many RVs are quite luxurious, featuring air conditioning, bathrooms, kitchens, showers, satellite TV and even Internet connections. RV campers may choose these devices because they consider tent camping uncomfortable and inconvenient. In the United States and Europe, some campgrounds offer hookups where motorhomes are supplied with electricity, water and sewer services. Some retirees and self-employed people sell their homes and live nomadically in their RVs, often moving with the seasons.

Those who seek a rugged experience in the outdoors prefer to camp with only tents, or no shelter at all ("under the stars"). Tent camping commonly employs an automobile to transport equipment to an established campground (this practice is called "car camping"). Other vehicles used for camping include touring bicycles, boats, and even bush planes, although backpacking and using pack animals are popular alternatives. Tent camping attracts young families because the children tend to enjoy it, and because gear is inexpensive and rugged. Tent camping sites often cost less than campsites with full amenities, and most allow direct access by car. Some "walk-in" sites lie a short walk away from the nearest road but do not require full backpacking equipment.
Mobile camping

Backpacking is a very mobile variety of tent camping. Backpackers use lightweight equipment that can be carried long distances on foot. They hike across the land, camping at remote spots, often selecting campsites at will if resource protection rules allow. Backpacking equipment typically costs more than that for car camping, but still far less than a trailer or motorhome, and backpacking campsites are generally cheap.

Canoe camping is similar to backpacking, but uses canoes for transportation; much more weight and bulk can be carried in a canoe or kayak than in a backpack. Canoe camping is common in North America.

One form of bicycle touring combines camping with cycling. The bicycle is used to carry the gear and as the primary means of transportation, allowing greater distances to be covered than backpacking although less capacity for storage.

Motorcycle camping is more comparable to bicycle camping than car camping, due to the limited storage capacity of the motorbike. Motorcycle camping riders, as well as bicycle touring riders, often use some of the same equipment as backpackers, due to the lighter weights and compact dimensions associated with backpacking equipment.
Specialized camping

Survivalist campers learn the skills needed to survive out-of-doors in any situation. This activity may require skills in obtaining food from the wild, emergency medical treatments, orienteering, and pioneering. Wild Camping too, is a growing choice by people seeking the challenge of camping in the wilderness, without campsite amenities. It is a great way of enjoying the solitude and beauty of the wilderness in its most pure form.

"Winter camping" refers to the experience of camping outside during the winter - often when there is snow on the ground. Some campers enjoy the challenge this form of recreation brings. Campers and outdoorspeople have adapted their forms of camping and survival to suit extremely cold nights and limited mobility or evacuation. Methods of survival when winter camping include building snow shelters (quinzhees), dressing in "layers," staying dry, using low-temperature sleeping bags, and fueling the body with appropriate food.

Workamping allows campers to trade their labor for a free campsite, and sometimes for utilities and additional pay.

Adventure Camping is a common form of camping by people who race (possibly adventure racing or mountain biking) during the day, and camp in a minimalist way at night. They might simply use basic items of camping equipment like a micro-camping stove, sleeping bag and Bivouac bag.

Camping is a key part of the program of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting. It is used to teach self-reliance and team work.

Camping equipment

Common tent camping equipment includes:

* A tent, lean-to or other shelter device
* A sleeping bag for warmth
* A sleeping pad or air mattress is often placed underneath the sleeping bag for cushioning from stones and twigs as well as for insulation from the ground
* A portable stove to prepare hot meals and/or drinks where campfires are forbidden or impractical
* A lantern or flashlight
* A hatchet, axe or saw for cutting firewood (where allowed; see campfire) or constructing camp gadgets
* Various types and sizes of ropes and tarps for stringing clotheslines, sheltering dining areas, and other purposes.
* A chuck box to hold the many varied camp kitchen items for food preparation, consumption and cleanup.

Some campers may prepare food by cooking on a campfire, sometimes using such equipment as a Dutch oven. If utilizing a campground with electricity an electric frying pan is highly recommended.

Another good recommendation is to bring a bag to place your trash in, one with handles can be tied to a tree limb, or clothesline off the ground.

Much of the remaining needed camping equipment is commonly available in the home, like dishes, pots and pans. Lists of what to take are available in many camping books and websites. Many people opt not to use their home items but equipment better tailored to camping, such as heavy plastic tableware and salt and pepper shakers with tops that close to keep out rain. Backpackers use special lightweight and highly portable equipment.

Social camping

Many campers enjoy socializing with a small group of fellow campers. Such groups will arrange events throughout the year to allow members with similar interests or from similar geographical areas to get together. This allows families to form small close knit societies, and children form lasting friendships. Some who participate in this sort of camping feel that it brings a closer form of bonding, as members become more mutually dependent than they would otherwise be in modern society. There are 2 large organisations in the UK who facilitate this sort of camping: the Caravan Club and the Camping and Caravanning Club. It is also possible to find online special interest groups, who cater for those with a love of a particular pastime or sport.

In more recent years, those who camp alone have been able to share their experiences more easily with a large group of fellow campers, through the use of blogs & online social networking.

Plans to Build a Climbing Wall

2008-05-13T21:49:00.000-07:00

Establish Training Objectives. To start the planning phase, you need to define your objectives, or why you need a climbing wall. This is key to developing your plan to build a climbing wall.

Find a Location. The key to developing the plan to build a climbing wall is to find a good locaiton. You can adjust the size to fit the location. If space is a problem, you can still plan and make a pretty awesome campus board with just 4 X 8-foot panel on part of a wall. Smaller walls can be just as useful for your training. Be creative. Imitate rock shapes, design curves, turns, angles and other interesting shapes. Read about defining your training in the section on Training plans.

Define Training Needs. What type of training do you need from the climbing wall you are planning to build--generally, if endurance, keep it vertical; if strength use overhangs. Consider specific muscle groups, balance. After defining your objectives, visualize basic shapes that meet these goals. Picture shapes, sizes, overhangs, angles that will make your wall interesting. Blend objectives, available area, funding, and your building/construction trades experience into a realistic mental plan to build the climbing wall.

Build a Model. The plan to build a climbing wall will come from the model. Form the climbing wall's shape with the model. This is a creative planning process. The results of this phase should be general. By contrast, the design phase deals with specific and quantifiable aspects. Measurements, calculating quantities, sizes, dimensions are all aspects of design. The design phase is not creative, but analytical. It is helpful to consider the planning phase separately to avoid losing a lot of time with the details of design. Treating planning separate from design will help avoid redoing calculations if you need to change the basic concept later.

Take some measurements of the site. Get the height, length and width. If necessary, adjust the plan to a realistic size so you have enough assembly and workspace when you start building the climbing wall. Using the measurements of the site, build a scale model. Use a heavy poster board or construction paper. build the model to an easy scale to convert. If you are using feet and inches, a good scale is 1" = 1'. The scale or units of measure are not too important, as long as the model size is easy to work on and visualize. Poster board can be easily shaped, but don't cheat and bend it to "make" angles fit. 3/4" plywood won't be so forgiving. Building a scale model is very important. Climbing Walls are three-dimensional but on paper, plans for a climbing wall are two-dimential. It is difficult to develop a basic concept of a three-dimensional shape by using two a dimensional paper drawing. In the planning stages, a three dimensional model is a very good way to develop the overall conceptual plan to build the climbing wall. The climbing wall model will help refine the details, will help you visualize the finished wall, may highlight some conceptual flaws that may not have occurred to you otherwise, and will help you during the design phase. Use the model to establish the height, width basic shapes and angles of your wall. Use the model to work out the balances between the amount of space you have, establish a ballpark cost and create interesting shapes.

Attached to an Existing Structure. If you plan to attach your climbing wall to an existing structure it will eliminate some support braces, be easier to plan and build, but will "lock you in" to that location. The existing structure becomes part of your planning considerations. You must ensure that the existing structure is strong enough to support the additional stresses the climbing wall will add to it.

Freestanding. A freestanding climbing wall is the most versatile. Advantages: 1) will not damage an existing structure; 2) will be more transportable; 3) more suitable for renters; 4) do not have structural sound existing wall supports to anchor the climbing wall into. Building a freestanding climbing wall will cost more that a fixed wall and will be a little more difficult to design. You must take on the additional responsibility to create a structure that will be balanced (not tip over if all the climbers are on the same side at the same time) and support it's own weight.

Modular. This type of plan means it can be reassembled in a different order, or have other sections added at a later time. This will allow you to take it apart in sections and rearrange them to help keep your training interesting or to focus in on a specific aspect of training. When finished building the climbing wall it will be heavy. If you plan and build the climbing wall in small modular sections it will be easier to assemble.

Adjustable Angle. Consider adding an adjustable section. This will also be more difficult to plan and build but will give you the ability to work different aspects of training by adjusting the angle.

With these considerations, work with your model and develop a creative shape that meets your training needs, space constraints and budget.

Estimate Cost and Time. Do this by using a pre-design, or planning estimate. The planning estimate is used to make a "go, no-go" decision before proceeding to the design phase. Planning estimates are accomplished by using planning factors. A planning factor provides you a way to quickly estimate the cost for building materials and the time the project will take. Not surprisingly, there are no established planning factors to build a climbing wall (at least to my knowledge). The following planning factors seem to give reasonable results. The planning factor for cost is (2 x cost per sheet x number of sheets). For example: If the cost of one sheet of plywood is 45 ($¥L units of any national currency), and the wall will use 4 sheets of plywood, the formula is (2 x 45 x 4 = $¥L 360). Planning factors provide a quick cost estimate prior to developing a bill of materials. If you do not use some kind of pre-design planning estimate, you will not have any idea of the cost until after you finish the bill of materials, which is at the end of the design phase. Planning estimates are common at all levels of design-build projects in the pre-design phase. If you are interested in more detail about pre-design planning estimates you can visit the RS Means™ website at www.rsmeans.com.

Work Space. Make sure you have enough area to assemble the pieces separately, fasten them together, then stand them up. As a planning factor for work area, allow about twice as much area than the wall will require when built. This of course will vary based on the degree of overhang and height. Make sure you have enough clearance to stand the wall up with out getting it wedged against the ceiling before it is in place. Use your model to think through the assembly step. If necessary modify the concept model slightly to fit the reality of your physical constraints.

Common Tools. Note: these lists should be used to jog your memory, not as a definitive list.

power saw
drill with screw driver attachment
level
chalk line
tape measure, marking pencils
power jig saw
extension cords
crow bar or pry bar,
ratchet and sockets
gloves, safety glasses
combination or framing square

step ladder and / or extension ladder
work table or 2 saw horses
drop cloth, roller, roller frame, 5 gal bucket / roller screen, brushes
"C" clamps and wood clamps
1/2", 5/8", 5/16" drill bits
hammer
step ladder and / or extension ladder
chisel
nail apron or tool belt

Building Permits. A personal climbing wall in your home, which does not alter the structure of the existing facility, most likely will not require a building permit. You will need a building permit if building the climbing wall requires renovating, remodeling or new building at your home. Check the specific requirements for your location. Permit Place™ www.permitplace.com is an excellent source of information about building permit requirements, has links to most US States' building or environmental permits, and has a description of when a permit is required.

A common misperception is that local building authorities will hinder you to build a climbing wall. This is not true. Their purpose is to review and help avoid a disastrous mishap and maintain minimum building standards. This is in your interest. If you have any question call your city's building department.

How to Build a Climbing Wall

2008-05-13T21:20:00.000-07:00

4 Steps to Build a Climbing Wall.

The steps of the design-building a climbing wall are planning, design, construction, and finishing. It is fun and challenging to build a climbing wall. Define your training goals, plan, design, build, and texture finish. How to build a climbing wall is not difficult and will pay off with big improvements in your climbing skills.
Define Your Climbing Goals.

Decide what kind of training you need from the climbing wall before you jump into building it. Different features of a climbing wall are good for different types of training. Strength training is done in short bursts of maximum power in several sets. A steep overhang is good for strength training. For this type of training you don't need a long distance, but will need floor space, or area to accommodate a steeper angle. A home built climbing wall is great for power training because you can come and go from the climbing wall to add additional sets following your recovery. Endurance training is sub-maximal exertion for longer periods of time. The type of climbing wall that works well for endurance would be vertical or slightly overhung (at most 70°) and longer in distance. You can get pretty good endurance training by setting an overlapping 20-move route. Every other day add another hold to the route. A four-panel bouldering wall will make a very good size. This will give you 16' or 5 meters. Be creative. Interesting shapes will help you keep motivated.

After you have defined your personal goals and decide on the basic type of climbing wall you want to build, apply the principles and tips in the sections below.
Phases to build a climbing wall:

1. Planning. In this phase you define your training objectives. Based on your objectives, you decide on the wall's shape, size and features. Blend the actual location, budget, and your construction expertise together to develop a mental picture. Construct a model and some basic working drawings. Develop a working estimate of construction cost and time. The planning phase ends with a "go, no-go" decision based on the cost and time estimate.

2. Design. During design you calculate a specific bill of materials, exact costs, determine specific cut angles, type of joints, support framework, loads and stresses, etc. During the design phase you must clear any technical hurdles before the sawdust starts flying.

3. How to Build a Climbing Wall. This phase could be the most fun, or the most frustrating. If you have done careful planning and design, the construction will go much smoother.

4. Finishing. This is the final phase before cranking the holds on. The finishing includes preparing the surface for paint, application, sand texture, and adding a fallzone.

Wall Climbing

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A climbing wall is an artificially constructed wall with grips for hands and feet, used for climbing. Some are brick or wooden constructions, but on most modern walls, the material most often used is a thick multiplex board with holes drilled into it. Recently, manufactured steel and aluminum have also been used. The wall may have places to attach belay ropes, but may also be used to practice lead climbing or bouldering.

Each hole contains a specially formed t-nut to allow modular hand holds to be screwed on to the wall. With manufactured steel or aluminum walls, an engineered industrial fastener is used to secure hand holds. The face of the multiplex board climbing surface is covered with textured products including concrete and paint and/or polyurethane loaded with sand. In addition to the textured surface and hand holds, the wall may contain surface structures such as indentions (incuts) and protrusions (bulges), or take the form of an overhang, underhang or crack.

Some grips are formed to mimic the conditions of outdoor rock, including some that are oversized and can have other grips bolted onto them.

KILIMANJARO CLIMBING AND WALKING GUIDE

2008-04-23T00:00:00.001-07:00

CLIMBS

110 The Western Breach 1100m I** 6h to summit.

The easiest way on the south-west side of the mountain; well marked. The first section is on steep scree above the Arrow Glacier Hut, occasional snow/ice patches. Higher up a pleasant scramble and a short loose section lead to the crater rim, 200m below Uhuru Peak. Coming down, route finding may be tricky because the breach fills with cloud in the afternoon. For reaching the summit, .2 ways to continue. (i) Traverse 2km east then south-east across the relatively flat crater floor to attain the Marangu route halfway between Gillman's Point and Uhuru Peak. (ii) The Furtwangler Glacier to the south-east is skirted either on its right or on its easier north side; beyond, an easy gully leads to the level rim, l00m west of Uhuru Peak. Ice axe and possibly crampons useful.

111 Heim Glacier 1200m II/III*** l0h.

A Nelson, H J Cooke, D N Goodall, 1957. The obvious glacier with a dog-leg right of the Breach Wall precipices. An outstanding route; technical difficulties are short. From the Barranco Hut follow the South Kibo Circuit (cut-off point as noted above) and take a rocky then moraine ridge north, directly to foot of glacier. A bivouac boulder lies about l00m below glacier snout at 4500m (3h). Climb the snout or go up scree on left and traverse onto glacier higher up. Follow the easiest line upwards. The top of Window Buttress can be reached in 2 ways.

(i) l00m from its highest rocks, make a traverse left onto a broad ledge on the buttress; follow this left then right to a ramp which is climbed to an ice pitch and the top (II/III). (ii) The broad ledge can be avoided by climbing 450 ice leftwards to the top in 3 pitches (III). 4h. This is the knee of the dog-leg (4800m). Good bivouac site in magnificent surroundings. (From here a long rising traverse left gains the base of the 2 famous Breach Wall icicles, 80m high). Climb easy slopes to a steepening taken direct or avoided by gullies well to the left. Beyond, the angle relents (bivouac sites possible) and the summit ice cliffs are seen. Aim for the left edge of these and pass below them to reach Uhuru Peak (6h).

Note: glacial recession has recently removed the lowest part of the Heim leaving steep, unstable scree and icy patches. In poor snow cover this section could be very hard and unpleasant.

Two icicles mentioned above are part of the Breach Wall Direct Route; the left one was climbed by right Messner, K Renzler in 1978 (l2h including lower sections, VI**). There are a variety of approaches to the icicles: (i) up the lower walls by steep rocks and snow below and left of the icicles, (ii) by steep snowfields and ice to ledges leading right to lowest point of Balletto Gl. (iii) from the Heim Gl. by a left rising traverse. Avoid attempting the icicle in the afternoon when it is often running with water. There are good bivouac ledges at the base of the icicles.

Two other major glaciers lie right of the Heim: the Kersten and Decken. It is possible to find a way up the right side of the Kersten at about grade III/IV. The Decken can be climbed at III. Numerous harder variations exist on all the glaciers.

112 Barafu Route 1300m I* 6h.

Combined with the Machame or Umbwe approaches, this adventurous easy itinerary allows the scenery of the Kibo South circuit to be sampled whilst gaining acclimatisation. The Barafu Hut (for access, see Kibo South Circuit above) is situated in a desolate spot. Unless the snowline is low, water can be hard to find. From the hut the west ridge of the south-east valley depression is followed. The lip of the crater is reached between the Ratzel and Rebmann glaciers. Uhuru Peak is less than lh away. The final slopes before the lip are steep and can be icy. To avoid cutting steps, crampons could then be useful. In descent, times can be halved.

Crater and Summit ice fields. For those well acclimatised a bivouac on the crater floor is very much worth the effort as it allows the Northern and Eastern icefields to be explored (outstandingly beautiful at dawn) as well as the inner (Reusch) crater. Inside the latter are numerous fumaroles and extensive sulphur deposits. The scene within the central Ash Pit is impressive.

KILIMANJARO CLIMBING AND WALKING GUIDE

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WALKING ROUTES

Normal route: from the Marangu Gate (1980m) a wide path leads through forest to the Mandara Hut, 2700m (4h). A path further W, starting just beyond the park gate, is 30 min longer but passes through some of the most beautiful forest hereabouts. In descent the start is clearly marked, about lh below Mandara. Maundi Crater and viewpoint provides a pleasant 30 min excursion from Mandara.

Shortly after leaving the Mandara Hut the forest gives way to giant heather, then moorland; the roomy Horombo huts are situated in this zone at 3700m (5h). Not far beyond these huts a faint but well marked trail traverses off left to the Barranco Hut; a long day's walk. On our route, higher up the vegetation thins and the last water trickle is passed. The path continues to the gravelly Saddle which is crossed at length to the Kibo Huts (4703m), situated below the Kibo scree slopes (5h). If there is little snow, water may have to be carried up to here. Starting well before dawn, climb the tedious scree to the crater rim and Gillman's Point (5680m) (5h). For this achievement a certificate is given at the park gate. Now more easily along the crater rim for about 1.5km to Uhuru Peak (1h30). In descent each leg can be done in 3h. The huts on this route are comfortable and camping is no cheaper. All of them have radios.

Umbwe route: on this and the next routes water is scarce. Carry an adequate supply, as dehydration accentuates altitude sickness. From Kifuni (1500m) an old vehicle track continues about 7km in forest (3h). A marked path turns left off this and in 3km a stream and possible campsite are reached (2h). Now steeply through forest with glimpses of Kibo above and the gorge below. At 2940m overhangs are reached, good shelters. Water is available in a slow moving stream about 50m below (3h). Soon the forest ends and the path proceeds along a spectacular narrow ridge. At 3500m a cave (water 10 min away) could be used as a shelter, but it is better to continue to the Barranco Hut at 3900m. This is beautifully situated at the upper limit of the heather zone and commands superb views of the southern ice cliffs and the Breach Wall; water nearby (5h). 30 min east of the hut, following the Kibo South Circuit to the Horombo huts, a stream is crossed before climbing steeply up the side wall of the valley; at this point there is a fine bivouac boulder.

From the Barranco Hut, going north-west for 500m, a ridge is gained and followed north for about lh to a flatter area. One path now heads east-north-east to the site of the destroyed Arrow Glacier Hut and a poor campsite, 4800m (4h). The main path continues north to traverse over streams; a short scramble gains a slight ridge leading north-east up to the damaged Lava Tower Hut (4600m), good campsites and water nearby (3h).

The Arrow Glacier site can be reached from here by a path climbing east-south-east up tedious scree (1h15).

Machame route: from the Park Post (1900m) a well marked path rises fairly steeply through forest. At 3000m the forest thins and the Machame huts are reached; stream nearby (5h). Above, cross a small valley and continue up ridges and through heather with occasional rock scrambles for about 4h to head of a river valley. Traverse west across this then continue north to the Shira Hut (3800m); water close by (5h). The damaged Lava Tower Hut is reached by a well-cairned trail leading east (3h30).

Lemosho Glades Route: an unspoilt, remote, little-used and beautiful way up to the Shira Plateau. Buffalo and other big game animals may be encountered. From Londorossi Park Gate (2250m,) track requiring a 4WD vehicle leads to Lemosho Glades (2000m, 11km, 45 minutes) and a possible campsite (park fees are not paid to camp here). Forest trails lead to Mti Mkubwa (big tree) campsite, (2750m, 3 hours). Water is quite 15min away. The trail steepens, enters the giant heather moorland zone, crossing the Shira Ridge at about 3600m to Shira 1 camp by stream (3500m, 5 hours). Across the Shira Plateau to Shira 2 camp on moorland meadows by stream (3850m, 1.5 hours). A variety of walks are available on the Plateau making this an excellent acclimatisation day. The Shira Hut is a further hour away, here join the Machame and Southern Circuit routes.

Kibo South Circuit: a fine traverse. The middle sections provide magnificent views of the ice cliffs above. From Shira Hut to Barranco Hut as noted above (4h). Then head east to the bivouac boulder under valley wall, 30 min from Barranco Hut (as Umbwe route above). Now scramble up steep trail to top of the Breach Wall. (Turn-off north at this point for the Helm Glacier). The path then traverses over scree and ridges and drops into the Karanga Valley to a fine campsite and stream (3h3 0). Climb out of the valley and continue traversing tediously over ridges till the Mweka-Barafu hut path is crossed (2h). Then traversing again to join the Marangu route just above the Horombo huts (3h).

Descent: the Marangu Route is reserved for those using it exclusively. The Mweka Route is the preferred descent from all other routes. From the summit either the Horombo Hut or the Mweka Hut may be reached in about 6 hours allowing for a short lunch stop and rest at either the Barafu or Kibo Huts.

Mweka route. This is presently only used as a descent route. Not particularly scenic but some fine forests. From Barafu Hut to Mweka Hut (3100m) on the forest edge takes 3h; water nearby. From Mweka Hut down to roadhead allow another 3h30.

Oloitokitok (Rongai) route: the old route from the Oloitokitok Outward Bound School in Kenya. Park fees must be paid and all proper arrangements made at Marangu Park Gate. Access from Kenya is restricted. For further information contact The Warden, Kilimanjaro National Park, PO Box 96, Marangu. Tel: Marangu 50.

KILIMANJARO CLIMBING AND WALKING GUIDE

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GENERAL
Kilimanjaro (5896m), the highest mountain in Africa, has less to offer the climber than Mt Kenya. However, some of the climbs are outstanding and the Umbwe route followed by the Heim Glacier is one of the world's great mountaineering expeditions. Uhuru Peak is the highest point on Kibo, the main pudding shaped elevation. Mawenzi (5149m) is just lower than Mt Kenya, more jagged and separated from Kibo by The Saddle, a flat semi-desert area extending for 5km. Both mountains have poor rock. The majestic south-west face of Kibo is steep and heavily glaciated, extending for 5km and broken only by one easy passage - The Western Breach. The well-equipped Marangu route from the east supplies the easiest approach. Splendid forests and moorlands are followed by The Saddle; finally tedious scree leads to the Kibo crater and Uhuru Peak. The south-west side of Kibo is best reached by the remote and demanding. Umbwe or Machame routes - only suitable for experienced mountaineers. The high level Kibo South Circuit links the remote south-west areas with the Marangu route and provides magnificent views of the ice-cliffs. Uhuru Peak was first attained by H Meyer and L Purtscheller in 1889, and named by them after the German emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm Spitze.

Geology and glaciology. Kilimanjaro lies on a tectonic line intersection 80km east of the tectonically active Rift Valley. The activity which created this volcano dates back less than a million years, and the central ash pit on Kibo, the highest volcanic centre, may be only several hundred years old. Steam and sulphur fumaroles here are indicative of residual activity. Shira and Mawenzi were two other areas of volcanic activity. Both became inactive before Kibo. The Shira volcanic cone collapsed leaving the Shira Ridge as part of its Caldera Rim. Mawenzi has been heavily eroded to leave a mass of steep-sided ridges and summits, particularly striking on the infrequently seen eastern side. Kibo is the beat preserved centre; it has 3 concentric craters and the outer crater rim rises to Uhuru Peak - the chief summit. The middle, Reusch crater, contains the main fumaroles and in its centre the 130m deep and 400m wide Ash Pit.

The outer crater has been breached by lava flows in several places, the most vivid of these being the Western Breach. The ash and lava covered slopes of Kibo are mainly gentle angled apart from the steep, glaciated precipices which defend its south and south-west flanks. The impressive rock walls on Kilimanjaro and Mawenzi are generally composed of lavas and ashes.

Deep gorges (barrancos) have been carved into the soft rocks and ashes. The most impressive of these is the Great Barranco below the Western Breach and the two barrancos on the east side of Mawenzi. Numerous parasitic cones extend east-west across Kilimanjaro; some are seen near the Mandara Hut (Maundi Crater offers a fine viewpoint), while others lie just north of the Shira Route.

At one stage most of the summit of Kilimanjaro was covered by an ice cap, probably more than l00m deep. Glaciers extended well down the mountain forming moraine ridges, clearly visible now on the southern flanks down to about 4000m. At present only a small fraction of the glacial cover remains. Remnants of the ice cap can be seen as the spectacular ice cliffs of the Northern and Eastern icefields, and the longest glaciers are found on the precipitous south and south-west flanks. If the present rate of recession continues the majority of the glaciers could vanish altogether in the next 40 years.

Flora and fauna. The lower slopes of the mountains are heavily cultivated, in particular those to the south which receive plenty of rainfall. Elsewhere lower rainfall coupled with porosity of the lava soils makes conditions less suitable for cultivation. The forest belt which completely encircles the mountains and extends from ca1500m to 2900m provides the best conditions for plant life. Above the forest belt the porous soils and lower rainfall result in much sparser vegetation with semi-desert conditions prevailing above 4000m. The cultivated belt contains many small holdings (shambas) where bananas and various vegetables are grown. The area is also suitable for coffee and there are several major plantations. The southern, wetter forests contain camphor, podocarpus, fig and other trees; lush undergrowth harbours many giant ferns and Usnea (old man's beard) drapes everything. Vines, mimulopsis and a multitude of flowers can be found in valleys and in clearer areas. The northern, drier forests contain podocarpus, junipers and olives. In contrast to Mt Kenya few large animals are encountered in this zone, though colobus and blue monkeys can often be seen but other inhabitants such as smaller antelopes and leopards are very shy. Many colourful birds are found here, the most noticeable being the Hornbill and the Turaco with its dark red wing markings.

The forests end abruptly without a bamboo zone as on most other East African mountains. Above, the rapidly thinning giant heather zone leads to the upper moorlands; here the giant groundsels and lobelias peculiar to high altitude tropical mountain zones are seen.

There are few animals other than rodents, though leopard spoor can often be detected. Eagles and buzzards soar high above and smaller birds such as the alpine chat and streaky seed eater can also be seen. In the higher moorland and alpine zones only a few tufts of grass, mosses and lichen are found, together with a few flowers such as the everlasting helichrysums and senecios.

Visiting the Park. Kilimanjaro National Park is well organised but very expensive. The average visitor for 5 days pays about $350 (in foreign exchange) before entry. This covers park fees and a mandatory guide. Bookings must be made and paid only through approved Tanzanian tour agents, who invariably offer packages that include a cook, food, porters and guides.

As on Mt Kenya it is important to acclimatise well to enjoy the ascent of Kibo (see comments on Diamox in the Introduction). Routes start at less than 2000m and it is recommended that at least 3 days are taken to reach the final cone. The weather on Kilimanjaro, though generally drier, follows a similar pattern to that on Mt Kenya. The south-west glaciers have their winter season between May and late October. Snow cover is then at its best though conditions are often misty. The best weather is between January and March but usually by mid February the glaciers are becoming icy and devoid of snow.

Several hotels and other agents are worthy of mention; all are able to organise trips.
Kibo Hotel, PO Box 102, Marangu, Kilimanjaro. Tel: Marangu 43151. Rather run-down.
Kilimanjaro Mountain Lodge, PO Box 50, Marangu, Kilimanjaro. Clean, close to gate.
Marangu Hotel, PO Box 40, Marangu, Kilimanjaro. Tel: Marangu 11. Grassy campsite available.
Key's Hotel, P0 Box 5330, Moshi. Tel: Moshi 52250. Wide ranging services including game park safaris. Shah Tours, P0 Box 1821, Moshi. Tel: 52370. Guest house and wide ranging services including game park safaris.
Zara, PO Box 1990, Moshi. Tel: 54240. Fax: 53105. Efficient mountain climbing and safari agents.
Note there is a cheap bunkhouse at the Marangu park gate.
The YMCA at Moshi is a cheap convenient base for the Umbwe and Machame routes.

Unofficial dealings in Kenyan and Tanzanian currencies are illegal, and bank notes should not be taken out of their country of origin. A car brought into Tanzania requires a road tax, valid for 3 months. Namanga or Taveta are the most convenient crossing points from Kenya.

Access: (i) Tarmac roads to the Marangu park gates. Nairobi to Namanga, 170km. Namanga to Arusha, 110km. Arusha to Moshi, 90km. Moshi to Himo, 27km. Himo to Marangu, 10km. Marangu to Marangu Park Gate, 7km. (ii) For Umbwe take the Moshi-Arusha road; 2km from Moshi dirt roads north lead to Umbwe in a further 14km. A dirt track continues for 3km to Kifuni and the park check point. Vehicles will not be allowed beyond here; the track enters the forest and becomes narrow and steep. (iii) For Machame take the Moshi-Arusha road for 9km to where a tarmac road north leads in 14km to Machame village. It is possible to drive with difficulty for another 6km. The park check point is at the edge of the forest. (iv) For Lemosho Route turn off the Moshi-Arusha road and drive through Ngare Nairobi on to Londorossi and the Shira Route Park Gate. Now a rough track leads into the forest and hence Lemosho Glades. This can be a very difficult drive in wet conditions.

Buses and matatus go from Nairobi to Namanga and on to Moshi regularly. From there, Marangu, Machame and Umbwe are all served by buses, matatus and taxis. Kilimanjaro International Airport lies just off the Moshi-Arusha road, 34km from Moshi. If travelling to or from Mombasa, the Taveta crossing may be used. Good services from Nairobi to Moshi include Davano's, tel: 222002 Nairobi and Riverside Shuttle (http://www.riverside-shuttle.com). Both are about $35 one way.

Climbing routes on Kilimanjaro

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The rock on Kilimanjaro is of a poor quality and unsuitable for rock climbing, however there are several good snow and ice routes that are sadly rapidly vanishing due to glacial recession. The complex peaks of Mawenzi provide a few rock routes on loose rock.

Until recently one of the most magnificent mountaineering expeditions in the world was an ascent of the Umbwe Route followed by the Heim Glacier. Just left of this the Breach Wall was climbed by the hardest route on Kilimanjaro the crux of this being a 100m high vertical icicle. Further left again the Western Breach (Arrow Glacier) Route provides an easy scrambling route to the crater. Sadly glacial recession has made the Heim Glacier a much harder and less pleasant route.

Park authorities and outfitters are not keen on climbing routes being tackled and special arrangements and disclaimers must be signed. The Western Breach route falls into this category although it is only a scramble on account of rock fall danger.

Breach Wall Direct

The left icicle was climbed by R Messner and K Renzler in 1978 (l2h including lower sections, VI**). There are a variety of approaches to the icicles: (i) up the lower walls by steep rocks and snow below and left of the icicles, (ii) by steep snowfields and ice to ledges leading right to lowest point of Balletto Gl. (iii) from the Heim Gl. by a left rising traverse. Avoid attempting the icicle in the afternoon when it is often running with water. There are good bivouac ledges at the base of the icicles.

The climb is probably best tackled in the period May to August.

Heim Glacier

A Nelson, H J Cooke, D N Goodall, 1957. Grade III+, 12 hours. The obvious glacier with a dog-leg right of the Breach Wall precipices. An outstanding route; technical difficulties are short. From the Barranco Hut follow the South Kibo Circuit (cut-off point as noted above) and take a rocky then moraine ridge north, directly to foot of glacier. A bivouac boulder lies about l00m below glacier snout at 4500m (3h). Climb the snout or go up scree on left and traverse onto glacier higher up. Follow the easiest line upwards. The top of Window Buttress can be reached in 2 ways. (i) l00m from its highest rocks, make a traverse left onto a broad ledge on the buttress; follow this left then right to a ramp which is climbed to an ice pitch and the top (II/III). (ii) The broad ledge can be avoided by climbing 450 ice leftwards to the top in 3 pitches (III). 4h. This is the knee of the dog-leg (4800m). Good bivouac site in magnificent surroundings. (From here a long rising traverse left gains the base of the 2 famous Breach Wall icicles, 80m high). Climb easy slopes to a steepening taken direct or avoided by gullies well to the left. Beyond, the angle relents (bivouac sites possible) and the summit ice cliffs are seen. Aim for the left edge of these and pass below them to reach Uhuru Peak (6h).

Note: glacial recession has recently removed the lowest part of the Heim leaving steep, unstable scree and icy patches. In poor snow cover this section could be very hard and unpleasant.

Western Breach

Grade I, 6 hours. The easiest way on the south-west side of the mountain; well marked. The first section is on steep scree above the former location of the Arrow Glacier Hut, occasional snow/ice patches. Higher up a pleasant scramble and a short loose section lead to the crater rim, 200m below Uhuru Peak. Coming down, route finding may be tricky because the breach fills with cloud in the afternoon. For reaching the summit ther are 2 ways to continue. (i) Traverse 2km east then south-east across the relatively flat crater floor to attain the Marangu route at Stella Point halfway between Gillman's Point and Uhuru Peak. (ii) The Furtwangler Glacier to the south-east is skirted either on its right or on its easier north side; beyond, an easy gully leads to the level rim, l00m west of Uhuru Peak. Ice axe and possibly crampons useful.

Walking ascent routes of Mount Kilimanjaro (part 5)

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Umbwe Route

This route is the hardest but most spectacular and direct way to reach Uhuru Peak. Extra days can be added to the itinerary to explore or relax along the route or to camp in the Karanga River valley.

Accommodation on the mountain is in tents; you will need a sleeping bag.

Outline Programme

1. Drive to the Umbwe Roadhead at 1800m. The route initially follows a forestry track winding up through the natural rain forest. It then narrows and steepens to climb the ridge between the Lonzo and Umbwe rivers. The first campsite is in the forest by some rock overhangs at 2940m, (5-6 hours walking).
2. Shortly after leaving the camp the forest ends and the path continues along a narrow spectacular ridge. Above, the sheer 1000m of the Breach Wall appears and disappears as the afternoon mists roll up the Great Barranco. From the Umbwe ridge the route descends slightly to the Barranco Hut and our camp in the valley floor at 3900m, (5-6 hours walking).
3. A short scramble to the top of the Great Barranco and then a traverse over scree and ridges to the Karanga Valley (4000m, 3 hours), beneath the icefalls of the Heim, Kersten and Decken Glaciers.
4. After climbing out of the Karanga Valley the trail ascends a ridge to the Barafu Hut, a bleak location with little vegetation at 4600m, (3 hours walking).
5. An early start for the ascent to the rim of the Kibo Crater between the Rebmann and Ratzel Glaciers, (4 hours); the last section before the rim can sometimes be snow-covered and an ice-axe or ski stick is useful for balance. From here a further hour leads to Uhuru Peak, from where there are often fine views of Meru to the west and the jagged peak of Mawenzi to the east. After a short time on the summit you descend to the Barafu Hut for a rest and lunch before continuing on down to camp at Mweka Hut in the giant heather zone on the Mweka route.
6. A 3-4 hour descent through beautiful forest brings you to the Park gate.

Walking ascent routes of Mount Kilimanjaro (part 4)

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Rongai Route

After the Marangu Route this is the second easiest route to take to ascend Kilimanjaro. From the summit glaciers, screes, cliffs, afro-alpine moorland then forests lead down to the cultivated foothills. The Rongai route takes you at a gentle pace through these dramatically different zones.

The Rongai Route was formerly used by the Oloitokitok Outard Bound school. Now access from Kenya is virtually impossible and the route involves 4 hour drive from Moshi to Nare Moru town. Shortly beyond lies the Park Gate at about 2150m. The route can be done in 6 days going directly to Kibo Hut from where the final ascent is made or a more beautiful alternative is to do it in 7 days going to Kibo Hut via Mawenzi Tarn Hut. The latter route can be done in 6 days by a very strong group. Accommodation throughout is in tents.

For the ascent to Uhuru Peak from Kibo Hut a very early start is made since the scree is easier to climb when frozen and the views from the crater rim at dawn can be spectacular. Ski sticks are useful when ascending the scree to the summit.

This is a tough walking trip but within the limits of a fit individual used to walking in mountain areas.

Outline Programme Via Mawenzi Tarn 6 day programme - recommended

1. Drive 4 hours to the Rongai Gate. Walk to Simba Camp at 2650m, 2½-3 hrs. The walk is initially through plantations then rain forest and finally bush country.
2. Walk to 2nd Cave at 3450m, 3½ hrs. A gentle day through bush then heathers.
3. Gentle rising traverse through moorland over several ridges to Kikelea Caves, 3600m, 3 hours.
4. Moorland then screes to Mawenzi Tarn Hut, 4330m, 3-3½ hrs.
5. Easy angled screes slopes lead across the Saddle to Kibo Hut, 4700m, 4½-5 hrs.
6. Very early start for the summit on steep scree up to Gillman's Point (5681m) which is on the crater rim. Continue around the rim (which will take about two hours if you are fit) to Uhuru Peak (5895m) the highest point in Africa. Descend to Kibo Hut for tea and biscuits or soup and then down to the thicker air an relative warmth of Horombo hut.
7. Descend to Marangu gate.

This route can be ascended omitting 2nd Cave making the second day long and quite demanding.

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Walking ascent routes of Mount Kilimanjaro (part 3)

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Marangu Route

This is the easiest route to take to ascend Kilimanjaro. It crosses The Saddle, a 5km wide, high-altitude, semi-desert that separates craggy Mawenzi from Kibo - the main summit. From the summit glaciers, screes, cliffs, afro-alpine moorland then forests lead down to the cultivated foothills. The Marangu route takes you at a gentle pace through these dramatically different zones.

For the ascent to Uhuru Peak from Kibo Hut a very early start is made since the scree is easier to climb when frozen and the views from the crater rim at dawn can be spectacular.

Ski sticks are useful when ascending the scree to the summit. Accommodation on the mountain is in comfortable huts you will require a sleeping bag, a mat is provided.

This is a tough walking trip but within the limits of a fit individual used to walking in mountain areas. An extra day for acclimatisation to the altitude can be spent at Horombo. From Horombo there are various walks to enjoy.

Outline Programme

1. Drive to Marangu Gate. Walk through the rain forest to Mandara hut (2743m), about 3 hours.
2. Leave the forest and cross open moor land to Horombo hut (3760m).
3. Rest and acclimatisation day at Horombo Hut. Day walk to Zebra Rocks or to Mawenzi Hut. This day can be missed out making a 5 day itinerary.
4. Walk through moorland then alpine desert to "The Saddle" between the peaks of Mawenzi and Kibo. From here you will walk for about an hour to reach Kibo hut (4730m).
5. Very early start for the summit on steep scree up to Gillman's Point (5681m) which is on the crater rim. Continue around the rim (which will take about two hours if you are fit) to Uhuru Peak (5895m) the highest point in Africa. Descend to Kibo Hut for tea and biscuits or soup and then down to the thicker air an relative warmth of Horombo hut.
6. Descend to Marangu gate.

Walking ascent routes of Mount Kilimanjaro (part 2)

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Machame route

The Machame route as of 2006 is described here. The route is typically done on a six or seven day hike.

The campsites and gates (with corresponding elevations) are as follows:

* Machame Gate (start of trek) (5718 ft/1738 m)
* Machame (9927 ft/3018 m)
* Shira (12355 ft/3756 m)
* Barranco (13066 ft/3972 m)
* Karanga (optional camp, used by 6-day climbers)
* Barafu (high camp before summit) (15239 ft/4633 m)
* Mweka (descent) (10204 ft/3102 m)
* Mweka Gate (end of trek) (5423 ft/1649 m)

(The given altitudes are sourced from a GPS device and are accurate to a few hundred feet)

One benefit of the Machame route is its quick rise to relatively high elevations (~10,000 ft/~3,040 metres), and a short ascent to the Lava Tower site (~15,000 ft/~4,560 m) before descending back to Barranco Camp (12,700 ft/3,870 m) on the same day. This follows the climber's adage 'climb high, sleep low', and helps altitude acclimatization. The initial steep ascent also helps climbers acclimatise better.

The Machame route starts from Machame Gate and travels upwards through the montane rainforest, characterized by dense vegetation, a muddy trail and short sections of steep climbs. The first campsite, Machame Camp, is right after the dense tree cover in an area with lower but still thick bushlands.

The second day continues through increasingly sparse trees and bushes into moorlands. Picturesque hanging mosses often cover trees and offer an ethereal quality to the landscape. The day finishes with Shira Camp, which is on a small plateau in the high moorlands, and features views of Kibo in the northwest and Mount Meru towards the east. White necked ravens can be seen throughout the day. There is also a set of small caves a short walk from the campsite known as the Shira Caves.

The third day starts in the moorlands and moves into alpine desert, with fewer trees and more rocks. The highest point is the base of the Lava Tower, after which the trail descends into the Barranco Valley. More vegetation is present in this zone, especially the area just before the campsite. This area is called the 'Garden of the Senecias' which features many of the huge senecio plants. Shorter lobelia plants are also present.

The fourth day starts with the ascent of the Barranco Wall, which is considered a scramble in climbing terms. The top of the Wall has attractive vistas of Kibo and the surrounding landscape. The trail continues with many up and down sections across small streams and rivulets, and finally crosses the Karanga River to the Karanga campsite.

The fifth day follows the path up and across a rocky zone, finishing at the high camp Barafu. Very little vegetation can be found on the inhospitable terrain. A field of sedimentary rocks litters the ground like many broken mirrors. (Note - the six day trek omits the Karanga campsite, and climbers continue directly to Barafu on the same day.)

The summit is usually attempted on the very early morning of the 6th day (around midnight). Barafu is also used as a summit campsite for the Umbwe route. Climbers typically take somewhere between five and seven hours to ascend, using headlamps and cold weather gear. Making the ascent on a full moon or shortly thereafter can make the headtorch unnecessary and the night ascent a beautiful experience. The first milestone, geherally reached shortly after dawn, is Stella Point (18,652 ft/5,685 m), which is on the crater rim. Following Stella Point, the trail continues for another 30 mins to the summit - Uhuru Peak.

The descent back to Barafu takes roughly four hours. Some climbers 'scree slide' down the slope, which entails skidding/running down the loose gravel at medium speed. From Barafu, climbers typically take a short break, and continue downwards through the alpine desert and ensuing moorlands to Mweka Camp.

The seventh and final day has trekkers continue through the montane forest to Mweka Gate. Troops of black-and-white colobus monkeys can often be seen in the dense growth.

Walking ascent routes of Mount Kilimanjaro (part 1)

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Lemosho Route

This is an unspoilt, remote, less-used and beautiful way up to the Shira Plateau. It can either be used to gain the Western Breach route or followed by the Kibo South Circuit to ascend by the easier Barafu Route. The route is one of the few where groups may be accompanied on the first day by an armed ranger as the forests around the Lemosho Glades are rich in buffalo, elephant and other big game animals.

The standard route takes 7 days on the mountain; however since the route is quite long a party wishing to ascend more slowly can comfortably take 8 days on the mountain by camping at Karanga Valley before going on to Barafu.

Outline Programme

1. Drive from Moshi or Arusha to Londorossi Park Gate (2250m, 2 hours). From here a forest track requiring a 4WD vehicle leads to Lemosho Glades (2100m, 11km, 45 minutes) and a possible campsite (park fees are not paid to camp here). Walk along forest trails to Mti Mkubwa (big tree) campsite, (2750m, 3 hours).
2. The trail gradually steepens and enters the giant heather moorland zone. Several streams are crossed then it gains the Shira Ridge at about 3600m and drops gently down to Shira 1 camp located by a stream on the Shira Plateau (3500m, 5 hours). This campsite could be omitted.
3. A gentle walk across the plateau leads to Shira 2 camp on moorland meadows by a stream (3850m, 1.5 hours). A variety of walks are available on the Plateau making this an excellent acclimatisation day.
4. Continue east towards Kibo passing the junction, then east towards the Lava Tower. Shortly after this, you descend to Barranco hut (3940m, 4 hours).
5. A short scramble to the top of the Great Barranco and then a traverse over scree and ridges to the Karanga Valley (4000m, 3 hours), beneath the icefalls of the Heim, Kersten and Decken Glaciers. After climbing out of the Karanga Valley the trail ascends a ridge to the Barafu Hut, a bleak location with little vegetation at 4600m, (3 hours walking).
6. An early start for the ascent to the rim of the Kibo Crater between the Rebmann and Ratzel Glaciers, (4 hours); the last section before the rim can sometimes be snow-covered and an ice-axe or ski stick is useful for balance. From here a further hour leads to Uhuru Peak, from where there are often fine views of Meru to the west and the jagged peak of Mawenzi to the east. Descend to the Barafu Hut for a rest and lunch before continuing on down to camp at Mweka Hut in the giant heather zone on the forest edge. Those with energy on the summit may wish to descend to the Reutsh Crater and visit the dramatic ice pinnacles of the Eastern Icefields.
7. A 3-4 hour descent through beautiful forest brings you to the Park gate and your waiting transport.

This is a strenuous walking trip but within the limits of a fit individual used to walking in mountain areas. Ski sticks or ice-axe are useful when ascending the scree to the summit.

Planning an ascent in Mount Kilimanjaro

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Many companies worldwide offer Kilimanjaro treks. Ultimately all of them rely on Tanzanian operator as only they are officially allowed to make the ascent arrangements and purchase the entry permits. All of them also rely on local guides and porters to accompany groups or individuals. It is strongly advised to make arrangements in advance with an accredited outfitter and to avoid making last-minute arrangements on arrival in Moshi or Arusha where you could be approached by rogue traders.

Records of Mount Kilimanjaro

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The youngest person on record to ever reach the summit was Ryan J. Eckert, a 12 year old American boy living in Nigeria. He reached the top at age 12 with his father and older brother on August 16, 2005.

Current conditions

While the volcano appears to be dormant on the inside, events on top of the mountain draw global attention. The top of the mountain has seen a retreat of the most recent covering of glaciers, with the most recent ice cap volume dropping by more than 80% . In 2002, a study led by Ohio State University ice core paleoclimatologist Lonnie Thompson predicted that ice on top of Africa's tallest peak would be gone between 2015 and 2020 . In 2007, a team of Austrian scientists from University of Innsbruck predicted that the plateau ice cap will be gone by 2040, but some ice on the slope will remain longer due to local weather conditions . A comparison of ice core records suggests conditions today are returning to those of 11,000 years ago. A study by Philip Mote of the University of Washington in the United States and Georg Kaser of the University of Innsbruck in Austria concludes that the shrinking of Kilimanjaro's ice cap is not directly due to rising temperature but rather to decreased precipitation. As of January 2006, the Western Breach route has been closed by the Tanzanian government following a rockslide that killed four people at Arrow Glacier Camp.[citation needed] The rockslide is believed to have been caused by frost action in an area that is no longer permanently frozen.

After the Western Breach route was closed in January 2006, many expeditions that had intended to use this route have instead used the Lemosho/Barafu route. As the Western Breach route, this route starts to the west and goes up the Shira Ridge towards Lava Tower. Instead of going up to Arrow Glacier camp and the breach, however, this route goes around the southern edge of Kili towards Barafu Camp. From Barafu Camp, around 15,200 feet (4,633 m) altitude, a nighttime summit is usually attempted. As of December 2007, the Western Breach was re-opened, but it sparsely used by Kilimanjaro outfitters due to its inherent risks.

Description of Mount Kilimanjaro

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The highest point is Uhuru Peak on the volcano Kibo, 5,895 metres (19,341 ft). Kibo has a 1.5 mile wide crater on the top of it. As the highest point in Africa, Uhuru Peak is one of the Seven Summits. The summit was first reached by the Marangu army scout, Yohanas Kinyala Lauwo, German Hans Meyer and Austrian Ludwig Purtscheller, on October 6, 1889. Two other peaks are also extinct volcanoes: Mawenzi (5,149 m, 16,890 ft), the third highest peak in Africa (after Mount Kenya) and Shira (3,962 m, 13,000 ft). Yohanas' Notch is named after Lauwo.

An ascent of Mawenzi requires rock climbing and/or snow/ice climbing skills. The climb to Uhuru Peak is considered to be a relatively straightforward endeavour; however, ample time must still be provided for proper acclimatization to prevent altitude sickness. The three shortest routes, Marangu, Rongai and Machame can be climbed by a person of good health and limited mountaineering experience. Many who climb employ altitude-sickness medication and find this to be helpful in preventing the pounding headaches that plague many travellers. Those who travel on the Marangu route usually take four to five days to complete their climb. Huts with cooking facilities, bathrooms, and electricity are available at the end of each day's journey. The huts are Mandara, Horombo and Kibo, located at approximately 2700m.a.sl., 3700m.a.s.l. and 4,500m.a.s.l. respectively. All huts have rangers stationed at them with rescue facilities (modified wheelbarrows to transport climbers stricken with altitude sickness to lower altitudes).

The final part of the climb, from Kibo hut at 15,500 ft (4,720 m) to the summit, is generally undertaken at night, because the scree is frozen together, making the climb significantly easier. Gilman's Point, on the rim of the crater but about a 1½ hour hike from Uhuru, is attained at 5:00 - 6:00 am; those who have the strength to continue may then hike on to Uhuru in the growing sunlight and rising temperatures. Another route is the Western Breach, which is much more technical in nature. Annually, approximately 15,000 people attempt to climb the mountain, of whom 40% reach the summit.

At the summit, there is a sign posted by the Tanzanian government. The sign (printed in English only) reads "Congratulations! You are now at Uhuru Peak, Tanzania, 5,895 m. AMSL. Africa's Highest Point. World's Highest Free-Standing Mountain. One of World's Largest Volcanos. Welcome." The sign is covered in travel stickers from past trekkers who have left their mark on the top of the peak. Near this famous sign is a box containing a log that many climbers have signed. As of January 2007 this box has either been removed or buried.

Due to the mountain's equatorial location as well as its high elevation, climbers can experience almost every climate type on earth during the journey to the top. It is also known to many for its year round snow-topped summit.

The summit of Kilimanjaro is covered by a GSM mobile phone network, provided by Vodacom. It lost its claim as the highest point in the world with mobile phone service, as China Mobile now provides coverage at the top of Mt. Everest, the highest point in the world.

Name

It is unknown where the name Kilimanjaro comes from, but a number of theories exist. European explorers had adopted it by 1860 and reported that it was its Swahili name, assuming that Kilimanjaro breaks up into Kilima (Swahili for "hill, little mountain") and Njaro, whose supposed origin varies according to the theory—for some it's an ancient Swahili word for white or for shining, while for others it has non-Swahili origin, e.g. Kichagga word jaro meaning caravan. The problem with all these theories is that they can't explain why the diminutive kilima is used instead of the proper word for mountain, mlima. A different approach is to assume that it comes from Kichagga kilemanjaare or kilemajyaro meaning "which defeats the bird/leopard/caravan". However this theory can't explain the fact that the name Kilimanjaro was not used in Kichagga before European exploration in the mid-1800s.

In the 1880s the mountain, called Kilimandscharo in German, became a part of German East Africa after Karl Peters had persuaded local chiefs to sign treaties (a common story that Queen Victoria gave the mountain to Kaiser Wilhelm II is not true). In 1889 Uhuru Peak on Kibo was named Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze, which was used in the German Empire until its defeat in 1918, when the territory became British-administered Tanganyika and the name was dropped.

While it is inactive, Kilimanjaro has fumaroles that emit gas in the crater on the main summit of Kibo. Scientists concluded in 2003 that molten magma is just 400 metres (1,300 ft) below the summit crater. Although new activity is not expected, there are fears the volcano may collapse[citation needed], causing a major eruption similar to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Several collapses and landslides have occurred on Kibo in the past, one creating the area known as the western breach. Although there is no recorded history of eruptions, local legend speaks of activity around 170 years ago.

Mount Kilimanjaro

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Elevation 5,895 metres (19,341 ft)
Location Tanzania
Prominence 5,885 m (19,308 ft) Ranked 4th
Coordinates 03°04′33″S 37°21′12″E / -3.07583, 37.35333Coordinate: 03°04′33″S 37°21′12″E / -3.07583, 37.35333
Type Stratovolcano
Last eruption None in recorded history
First ascent 1889 by Hans Meyer, Ludwig Purtscheller, Yohanas Kinyala Lauwo
Easiest route hike

Kilimanjaro with its three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawenzi, and Shira, is an inactive stratovolcano in north-eastern Tanzania. Depending on definition, Kilimanjaro may be considered as having anywhere from the tallest to the fourth tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world, rising 4,600 m (15,100 ft) from its base, and includes the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters (19,340 ft), providing a dramatic view from the surrounding plains.

Bike trials

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Bike trials is a form of mountain biking derived from motorcycle trials. The rider negotiates man-made and natural obstacles without their feet touching the ground. It originated in Spain and is said to have been invented by Ot Pi’s father (a world champion motorcycle trials rider). As it is hard for small children to control motorcycle trials bikes, he had wanted his son to learn and to practice motorcycle trials on an ordinary push bike instead of a motorbike.

At the most basic level, trials riding can be summed up as bicycle handling skills. It evolved from motorcycle trial riding (riding up, over obstacles, man-made or natural) into an off-season bicycle pastime. It now has a strong — though small — following, and can be seen worldwide. Skills taken from trials riding can be used practically on any bicycle for balance, for example controlled braking and track standing, or balancing on the bike without putting a foot down. Trial bike characteristics include, but are not limited to: powerful brakes, wide handlebars, light parts, low gearing, a thick rear tire that provides grip, a heavy emphasis on frame geometry, and no seat.

It is completely different from individual time trial races, which are an element of road bicycle racing.

Rules

The general principle in a bike trials competition is to ride a number of pre-marked sections (usually 2 laps of 10 sections or 3 laps of 7 sections), the winner being the rider with the least points at the end of the competition.

Currently there are two official types of competition rules, enforced by the UCI and BikeTrial International Union.

The maximum number of points that can be obtained in each section is 5, the lowest (and best) score is 0 points or ‘clean’. The most common way to gain a point is by putting a foot down within a section; for this reason points are sometimes known as ‘dabs’. Certain rules enforce the number of points gained within a section, for example, putting both feet down will result in 5 points. Exceeding the time limit for the course will either result in 5 points (BIU rules) or an additional point for every 15 seconds over the limit (UCI rules).

UCI

Within UCI rules, if any part of the bike except the tires touch any object in the course, a dab will be given. The UCI rules were changed to this format after too many competitions ended in a draw and riders were forced to ride an extra section. UCI rules also allows riders to compete in both mod and stock categories.

When a rider is in a section, neither tire is allowed to cross the side boundary tape even if the wheel is in the air. The rider’s hands must remain on the handlebars. Riders in the 26″ class must also have six working gears.

The UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships are held annually and crown a 20-inch and 26-inch wheel trials world champion.

BIU

The rules are unlike UCI scoring and parts of the bike (for example, bash guard or bash ring, cranks and pedals) can rest on an object without resulting in a ‘dab’. The level of riding for the elite 20″ class is regarded as the highest in bicycle racing since the section beginner is set at the highest technical level[attribution needed].

Bike Design

Trials bikes are often designed without regard for attaching a seat. Competition riding does not require seating down and the omission allows for a lighter bike which interferes less with the body movements of the rider. Brakes must be more powerful than standard bicycle brakes in order to prevent the wheel from moving when hopping on uneven surfaces. Tires and rims are wide allowing low pressures and increased contact and grip. Gear ratios are lower then on most bicycles in order to provide the power and quick acceleration needed to move the bike at the typically low speeds of trials riding.

According to current competition standards there are two classes of trials bike recognized. As the distinguishing characteristic of the classes is the bike's approximate wheel diameter, the classes are known as 20″ and 26″. These specific sizes were adopted from previously available bikes.

20″ — ‘Mod Bikes’

The first purpose made and commercially available trials bikes were manufactured by Montesa a mototrials company and were based on the modifyed bmx bikes that riders had been using. These 20″ wheeled trials bikes have become known colloquially as Mod bikes.

26″ — ‘Stock Bikes’

Early mountain bikes were well suited to the trials riding being done and so a separate class was introduced for them. 26″ used to refer to mountain bike kept in original condition. 26″ classed bikes were required to have at least six working gear ratios and a seat. Now, however, this designation is often used to describe any trials bike with 26″ wheels.

Earth Day

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Earth Day is a name used for two different observances, both held annually during spring in the northern hemisphere, and autumn in the southern hemisphere. These are intended to inspire awareness of and appreciation for the Earth's environment. The United Nations celebrates Earth Day, which was founded by John McConnell in 1969, each year on the March equinox, while a global observance originated by Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in, and since January 1970 also called Earth Day, is celebrated in many countries each year on April 22, including the U.S.

In September 1969, at a conference in Seattle, Washington, U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson announced that in the spring of 1970 there would be a nationwide grassroots demonstration on the environment. Senator Nelson first proposed the nationwide environmental protest to thrust the environment onto the national agenda.” "It was a gamble," he recalls, "but it worked." Five months before the first April 22 Earth Day, on Sunday, November 30, 1969, The New York Times carried a lengthy article by Gladwin Hill reporting on the rising tide of environmental events::

"Rising concern about the environmental crisis is sweeping the nation's campuses with an intensity that may be on its way to eclipsing student discontent over the war in Vietnam...a national day of observance of environmental problems...is being planned for next spring...when a nationwide environmental 'teach-in'...coordinated from the office of Senator Gaylord Nelson is planned...." Senator Nelson also hired Denis Hayes as the coordinator.

Each year, the April 22 Earth Day marks the anniversary of the birth of the modern environmental movement in 1970. Among other things, 1970 in the United States brought with it the Kent State shootings, the advent of fiber optics, "Bridge over Troubled Water," Apollo 13, the Beatles' last album, the death of Jimi Hendrix, and the meltdown of fuel rods in the Savannah River nuclear plant near Aiken, South Carolina -- an incident not acknowledged for 18 years. At the time, Americans were slurping leaded gas through massive V8 sedans. Industry belched out smoke and sludge with little fear of legal consequences or bad press. Air pollution was commonly accepted as the smell of prosperity. Environment was a word that appeared more often in spelling bees than on the evening news. But Earth Day 1970 turned that all around.

On April 22, 20 million Americans took to the streets, parks, and auditoriums to demonstrate for a healthy, sustainable environment. Denis Hayes, the national coordinator, and his youthful staff organized massive coast-to-coast rallies. Thousands of colleges and universities organized protests against the deterioration of the environment. Groups that had been fighting against oil spills, polluting factories and power plants, raw sewage, toxic dumps, pesticides, freeways, the loss of wilderness, and the extinction of wildlife suddenly realized they shared common values.

Mobilizing 200 million people in 141 countries and lifting the status of environmental issues onto the world stage. Earth Day on April 22 in 1990 gave a huge boost to recycling efforts worldwide and helped pave the way for the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.

As the millennium approached, Hayes agreed to spearhead another campaign, this time focused on global warming and a push for clean energy. The April 22 Earth Day in 2000 combined the big-picture feistiness of the first Earth Day with the international grassroots activism of Earth Day 1990. For 2000, Earth Day had the Internet to help link activists around the world. By the time April 22 rolled around, 5,000 environmental groups around the world were on board, reaching out to hundreds of millions of people in a record 184 countries. Events varied: A talking drum chain traveled from village to village in Gabon, Africa, for example, while hundreds of thousands of people gathered on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., USA.

Founded by the organizers of the first April 22 Earth Day in 1970, Earth Day Network promotes environmental citizenship and year round progressive action worldwide. Earth Day Network is a driving force steering environmental awareness around the world. Through Earth Day Network, activists connect change in local, national, and global policies. Earth Day Network’s international network reaches over 17,000 organizations in 174 countries, while the domestic program engages 5,000 groups and over 25,000 educators coordinating millions of community development and environmental protection activities throughout the year. Earth Day is the only event celebrated simultaneously around the globe by people of all backgrounds, faiths and nationalities. More than a half billion people participate in Earth Day Network campaigns every year.

History of the Equinox Earth Day

The equinoctial Earth Day is celebrated on the March equinox (around 20 March) to mark the precise moment of astronomical mid-spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and of astronomical mid-autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. An equinox in astronomy is that moment in time (not a whole day) when the center of the Sun can be observed to be directly above the Earth's equator, occurring around March 20 and September 23 each year. Although astronomically they occur at the mid-point of the seasons, in most cultures the equinoxes and solstices are considered to start or separate the seasons.

John McConnell first introduced the idea of a global holiday called "Earth Day" at a UNESCO Conference on the Environment in 1969. The first Earth Day proclamation was issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph Alioto on March 21, 1970. Celebrations were held in various cities including San Francisco, in Davis, California with a multi-day street party, and elsewhere. UN Secretary-General U Thant supported McConnell's global initiative to celebrate this annual event, and on February 26, 1971, he signed a proclamation to that effect, saying:

May there only be peaceful and cheerful Earth Days to come for our beautiful Spaceship Earth as it continues to spin and circle in frigid space with its warm and fragile cargo of animate life.

Secretary General Waldheim observed Earth Day with similar ceremonies on the March equinox in 1972, and the United Nations Earth Day ceremony has continued each year since on the day of the March equinox (the United Nations also works with organizers of the April 22nd global event). Margaret Mead added her support for the equinox Earth Day, and in 1978 declared:

"EARTH DAY is the first holy day which transcends all national borders, yet preserves all geographical integrities, spans mountains and oceans and time belts, and yet brings people all over the world into one resonating accord, is devoted to the preservation of the harmony in nature and yet draws upon the triumphs of technology, the measurement of time, and instantaneous communication through space.
EARTH DAY draws on astronomical phenomena in a new way – which is also the most ancient way – using the vernal Equinox, the time when the Sun crosses the equator making night and day of equal length in all parts of the Earth. To this point in the annual calendar, EARTH DAY attaches no local or divisive set of symbols, no statement of the truth or superiority of one way of life over another. But the selection of the March Equinox makes planetary observance of a shared event possible, and a flag which shows the Earth as seen from space appropriate."

At the moment of the equinox, it is traditional to observe Earth Day by ringing the Japanese Peace Bell, a bell donated by Japan to the United Nations. Over the years celebrations have occurred in various cities worldwide at the same time as the celebration at the UN. On March 20, 2008, in addition to the ceremony at the United Nations, ceremonies were held in New Zealand, and bells were sounded in California, Vienna, Paris, Lithuania, Tokyo and many other locations. The equinox Earth Day at the UN is organized by the Earth Society Foundation

The April 22 Earth Day

Growing Eco-activism before Earth Day 1970

The 1960s had been a very dynamic period for ecology in the US, in both theory and practice. It was in the mid-1960s that Congress passed the sweeping Wilderness Act, and Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas asked, "Who speaks for the trees?" Pre-1960 grassroots activism against DDT in Nassau County, NY, had inspired Rachel Carson to write her shocking bestseller Silent Spring (1962).

Earth Day 1970

Responding to widespread environmental degradation, Gaylord Nelson, a United States Senator from Wisconsin, called for an environmental teach-in, or Earth Day, to be held on April 22, 1970. Over 20 million people participated that year, and Earth Day is now observed each year on April 22 by more than 500 million people and national governments in 175 countries. Senator Nelson, an environmental activist, took a leading role in organizing the celebration, hoping to demonstrate popular political support for an environmental agenda. He modeled it on the highly effective Vietnam War protests of the time. The concept of Earth Day was first proposed in a memo to JFK written by Fred Dutton.

According to Santa Barbara, California Community Environmental Council:

The story goes that Earth Day was conceived by Senator Gaylord Nelson after a trip he took to Santa Barbara right after that horrific oil spill off our coast in 1969. He was so outraged by what he saw that he went back to Washington and passed a bill designating April 22 as a national day to celebrate the earth.

Senator Nelson selected Denis Hayes, a Harvard University graduate student, as the national coordinator of activities. Hayes said he wanted Earth Day to "bypass the traditional political process." Garrett DuBell compiled and edited The Environmental Handbook the first guide to the Environmental Teach-In. Its symbol was a green Greek letter theta, "the dead theta".

The nationwide event included opposition to the Vietnam War on the agenda, but this was thought to detract for the environmental message. Pete Seeger was a keynote speaker and performer at the event held in Washington DC. Paul Newman and Ali McGraw attended the event held in New York City.

The Results of Earth Day 1970

Earth Day proved popular in the United States and around the world. The first Earth Day had participants and celebrants in two thousand colleges and universities, roughly ten thousand primary and secondary schools, and hundreds of communities across the United States. More importantly, it "brought 20 million Americans out into the spring sunshine for peaceful demonstrations in favor of environmental reform."

Senator Nelson stated that Earth Day "worked" because of the spontaneous response at the grassroots level. 20 million demonstrators and thousands of schools and local communities participated. He directly credited the first Earth Day with persuading U.S. politicians that environmental legislation had a substantial, lasting constituency. Many important laws were passed by the Congress in the wake of the 1970 Earth Day, including the Clean Air Act, laws to protect drinking water, wild lands and the ocean, and the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Now observed in 175 countries, and coordinated by the nonprofit Earth Day Network, according to whom Earth Day is now "the largest secular holiday in the world, celebrated by more than a half billion people every year." Environmental groups have sought to make Earth Day into a day of action which changes human behavior and provokes policy changes.

The significance of the date

* April 22 was the birthday of actor Eddie Albert. Because of Eddie Albert's early work with environmental causes and groups, when International Earth Day was created, it was decided it must be held on April 22 because that is his birthday.
* April 21 was the birthday of John Muir, who founded the Sierra Club. This is not lost on organizers who thought that April 22 was Muir's birthday.
* April 22, 1970 was the 100th birthday of Vladimir Lenin. Time reported that some suspected the date was not a coincidence, but a clue that the event was "a Communist trick," and quoted a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution saying, "Subversive elements plan to make American children live in an environment that is good for them." J. Edgar Hoover, director of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, may have found the Lenin connection intriguing; it was alleged the FBI conducted surveillance at the 1970 demonstrations. The idea that the date was chosen to celebrate Lenin's centenary still persists in some quarters, although Lenin was never noted as an environmentalist.
* April 22 is also the birthday of Julius Sterling Morton, the founder of Arbor Day, a national tree-planting holiday started in 1872. Arbor Day became a legal holiday in Nebraska in 1885, to be permanently observed on April 22. According to the National Arbor Day Foundation "the most common day for the state observances is the last Friday in April . . . but a number of state Arbor Days are at other times to coincide with the best tree planting weather." It has since been largely eclipsed by the more widely observed Earth Day, except in Nebraska, where it originated.

Earth Week

Many cities extend the Earth Day celebration to be an entire week, usually starting on April 16, and ending on Earth Day, April 22nd.

According to Flags of the World, the Ecology Flag was created by cartoonist Ron Cobb, and was published for the first time in October 25, 1969. The flag was patterned after the flag of the United States, and had thirteen stripes alternating green and white. Its canton was green with a yellow Theta. It originally had a symbol that was a combination of the letters "E" and "O" taken from the words "Environment" and "Organism", respectively. Later flags used either a Theta because of its historic use as a warning symbol, or the Peace Symbol. Theta would later become associated with Earth Day.

As a 16 year old high school student, Betsy Vogel, an environmental advocate and social activist that enjoyed sewing costumes and unique gifts, made a 4 x 6-foot (1.8 m) green and white "theta" ecology flag to commemorate the first Earth Day. Initially denied permission to fly the flag at C.E. Byrd High School in Shreveport, Louisiana. Vogel sought and received authorization from the Louisiana Legislature and Louisiana Governor John McKeithen in time to display the flag for Earth Day.

Criticisms of Earth Day

Some environmentalists have grown critical of Earth Day, particularly those in the Bright green environmentalism camp. They charge that Earth Day has come to symbolize the marginalization of environmental sustainability, and that the celebration itself has outlived its usefulness .

Mount Sanford (Alaska)

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Elevation 16,237 ft (4,949 m)
Location Alaska, USA
Range Wrangell Mountains
Prominence 7,637 ft (2,328 m)
Coordinates [show location on an interactive map] 62°12′50″N, 144°7′44″W
Topo map USGS Gulkana A-1
Type Shield volcano
Age of rock Holocene
Last eruption 320,000 bp
First ascent July 21, 1938 by Terris Moore and Bradford Washburn
Easiest route Sheep Glacier (North Ramp) Route, Alaska Grade 2

Mount Sanford is a shield volcano in the Wrangell Volcanic Field, in eastern Alaska near the Copper River. It is the third highest volcano in the United States behind Mount Bona and Mount Blackburn. The south face of the volcano, at the head of the Sanford Glacier, rises 8,000 ft in one mile (2,400 m in 1,600 m) resulting in one of the steepest gradients in North America.

Geology

Mount Sanford is mainly composed of andesite, and is an ancient peak, being mostly of Pleistocene age, although some of the upper parts of the mountain may be of Holocene age. The mountain first began developing 900,000 years ago, when it began growing on top of three smaller shield volcanoes that had coalesced. Two notable events in the mountain's history include a large lava flow which traveled some 18 km to the north east of the peak, and a flow erupted from a rift zone on the flank of the volcano some 320,000 years ago, which was basaltic in nature, marking the most recent dated activity of the volcano. The flow was dated using radiometric methods. History

The mountain was named in 1885 by Lt. Henry T. Allen of the U.S. Army after the Sanford family (Allen was a descendant of Reuben Sanford).

Mount Sanford was first climbed on July 21, 1938 by noted mountaineers Terris Moore and Bradford Washburn, via the still standard North Ramp route up the Sheep Glacier. This route "offers little technical difficulty" and "is a glacier hike all the way to the summit"[1] but is still a serious mountaineering challenge (Alaska Grade 2) due to the altitude and latitude of the peak. The base of the route is usually accessed by air, but landing near the mountain is not straightforward.

On March 12, 1948, Northwest Airlines Flight 4422 crashed into Mount Sanford. All 24 passengers and 6 crew members were killed. The wreckage was quickly covered by snow and was not found again until 1999.

The first solo ascent of Sanford was achieved on September 19, 1968, by famed Japanese mountaineer Naomi Uemura, who later died just after making the first solo winter ascent of Mount McKinley.

Mount Foraker

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Mount Foraker is a 17,400 feet (5,300 m) tall mountain in the central Alaska Range, in Denali National Park, 14 miles (23km) southwest of Mount McKinley. It is the second highest peak in the Alaska Range, and the fourth highest peak[1] in the United States. It rises almost directly above the standard base camp for Mount McKinley, on a fork of the Kahiltna Glacier.

The mountain was named in 1899 by Lt. J.S. Herron, USA, for Joseph B. Foraker, U.S. Senator from Ohio. Its North Peak was first climbed on August 6, 1934, and its higher South Peak was climbed four days later on August 10, by C.S. Houston, T.G. Brown, and Chychele Waterston.

This peak along with Mount McKinley was called "Bolshaya Gora", or "big mountain", by the Russians. The Tanaina Indians of the Susitna River valley and Tanana Indians to the north are reported to have had the same name (Denali) for Mt. Foraker as they had for Mount McKinley, and it appears as if the names were not applied to individual peaks but instead to the Mount McKinley massif. The Tanana Indians in the Lake Minchumina area, however, had a broadside view of the mountains and thus gave dinstinctive names to each. According to Rev. Hudson Stuck, these Indians had two names for Mount Foraker; "Sultana" meaning "the woman" and "Menlale" meaning "Denali's wife", Denali being Mount McKinley.

Subpeaks and nearby Mount McKinley

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Besides the North Summit mentioned above, other less significant features on the massif which are sometimes included as separate peaks are:

* South Buttress, 15,885 feet (4,842 m); mean prominence = 335 feet (102 m)
* East Buttress high point, 14,730 feet (4,490 m); mean prominence = 380 feet (116 m)
* East Buttress, most topographically prominent point, 14,650 feet (4,465 m); mean prominence = 600 feet (183 m)
* Browne Tower, 14,530 feet (4,429 m); mean prominence = 75 feet (23 m)

None of these peaks is usually regarded as worthwhile objectives in their own right; however they often appear on lists of the highest peaks of the United States.

Nearby important peaks include:

* Mount Foraker
* Mount Hunter
* Mount Huntington
* Mount Dickey
* The Moose's Tooth

(Mount McKinley) Weather station

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The Japan Alpine Club installed a meteorological station on a ridge near the summit of Denali at an altitude of 5710 m in 1990. In 1998, this weather station was donated to the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. In June of 2002, a weather station was placed at the 19,000-foot level. This weather station was designed to transmit data in real-time for use by the climbing public and the science community. Since its establishment, annual upgrades to the equipment have been performed with instrumentation custom built for the extreme weather and altitude conditions. This weather station is one of only two weather stations in the world located above 18,000 feet.

Use of Denali and McKinley

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Mount McKinley is also commonly known as Denali, which means "the great one" in the Athabaskan language, and which is also the name currently recognized by the State of Alaska. In 1896 the mountain was officially named Mount McKinley, after the former Governor of Ohio and future U.S. President William McKinley. When Denali National Park and Preserve was established by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, December 2, 1980, the Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain back to Denali. However, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names maintains McKinley, which helps visitors differentiate between the mountain and Denali National Park, where the mountain is located. Alaskans tend to use "Denali" and rely on context to distinguish between the park and the mountain.

(Mount McKinley) Timeline

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* 1896-1902 Surveys by Robert Muldrow, George Eldridge, Alfred Brooks.
* 1903. First attempt, by Judge James Wickersham.
* 1906. Frederick Cook falsely claims the first ascent of McKinley.
* 1910. The Sourdoughs ascend the North Summit.
* 1912. The Parker-Browne attempt almost reaches the South Summit.
Mt. McKinley in July 2006
Mt. McKinley in July 2006
* 1913. First ascent by Hudson Stuck, Walter Harper, Harry Karstens, Robert Tatum.
* 1932. Second ascent, by Alfred Linley, Harry Liek, Grant Pearson, Erling Strom. (Both peaks were climbed.)
* 1947. Barbara Washburn becomes the first woman to reach the summit as her husband Bradford Washburn becomes the first to summit twice.
* 1951. First ascent of the West Buttress Route, led by Bradford Washburn.
* 1954. First ascent of the very long South Buttress Route.
* 1959. First ascent of the West Rib, now a popular, mildly technical route to the summit.
* 1961. First ascent of the Cassin Ridge, the best-known technical route on the mountain. This was a major landmark in Alaskan climbing.
* 1963. Two teams make first ascents of two different routes on the Wickersham Wall.
* 1967. First winter ascent, via the West Buttress, by Dave Johnston, Art Davidson, and Ray Genet.
* 1967. Seven members of Joe Wilcox's twelve-man expedition perish in a storm near the summit. Up to this time, this was the third worst disaster in mountaineering history in terms of lives lost.
* 1970. First solo ascent by Naomi Uemura.
* 1984. Uemura returns to make the first winter solo ascent, but dies after summitting. Tono Križo, František Korl and Blažej Adam from the Slovak Mountaineering Association climb a very direct route to the summit, now known as the Slovak Route, on the south face of the mountain, to the right of the Cassin Ridge.
* 1988. First solo winter ascent with safe return, by Vern Tejas.
* 1990. Alaskan Norma Jean Saunders became the first woman to officially document a solo ascent of Mount McKinley. She climbed the West Buttress.

(Mount McKinley) Climbing history

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The first recorded attempt to climb Mount McKinley was by Judge James Wickersham in 1903, via the Peters Glacier and the North Face, now known as the Wickersham Wall. This route has tremendous avalanche danger and was not successfully climbed until 1963.

Famed explorer Dr. Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent of the mountain in 1906. His claim was regarded with some suspicion from the start, but was also widely believed. It was later proved fraudulent, with some crucial evidence provided by Bradford Washburn when he was sketched on a lower peak.

In 1910, four locals (Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall), known as the Sourdough expedition, attempted McKinley, despite a complete lack of climbing experience. They spent approximately three months on the mountain. However, their purported summit day was impressive: carrying a bag of doughnuts, a thermos of cocoa each and a 14-foot (4.2 m) spruce pole, two of them reached the North Summit, lower of the two, and erected the pole near the top. According to them, they took a total of 18 hours — a record that has yet to be breached (as of 2006). No one believed their success (partly due to false claims that they had climbed both summits) until the true first ascent, in 1913.

In 1912, the Parker-Browne expedition nearly reached the summit, turning back within just a few hundred yards of it due to harsh weather. In fact, that probably saved their lives, as a powerful earthquake shattered the glacier they ascended hours after they safely left it.

The first ascent of the main summit of McKinley came on June 7, 1913 by a party led by Hudson Stuck. The first man to reach the summit was Walter Harper, an Alaska Native. Harry Karstens and Robert Tatum also made the summit. Tatum later commented, "The view from the top of Mount McKinley is like looking out the windows of Heaven!" They ascended the Muldrow Glacier route pioneered by the earlier expeditions, which is still often climbed today. Stuck confirmed, via binoculars, the presence of a large pole near the North Summit; this report confirmed the Sourdough ascent, and today it is widely believed that the Sourdoughs did succeed on the North Summit. However, the pole was never seen before or since, so there is still some doubt. Stuck also discovered that the Parker-Browne party were only about 200 feet (61 m) of elevation short of the true summit when they turned back.

The mountain is regularly climbed today, with just over 50% of the expeditions successful, although it is still a dangerous undertaking. By 2003, the mountain had claimed the lives of nearly 100 mountaineers. The vast majority of climbers use the West Buttress Route, pioneered in 1951 by Bradford Washburn, after an extensive aerial photographic analysis of the mountain. Climbers typically take two to four weeks to ascend the mountain.

Layout of the McKinley

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Mount McKinley has two significant summits: the South Summit is the higher one, while the North Summit has an elevation of 19,470 feet (5,934 m) and a prominence of approximately 1,320 feet (402 m). The North Summit is sometimes counted as a separate peak (see e.g., the List of United States fourteeners) and sometimes not; it is rarely climbed, except by those doing routes on the north side of the massif.

Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The Peters Glacier lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the Traleika Glacier. The Ruth Glacier lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the Kahiltna Glacier leads up to the southwest side of the mountain.

(Mount McKinley ) Notable features

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Mount McKinley has a larger bulk and rise than Mount Everest. Even though the summit of Everest is about 9,000 feet (2,700 m) higher as measured from sea level, its base sits on the Tibetan Plateau at about 17,000 feet (5,200 m), giving it a real vertical rise of little more than 12,000 feet (3,700 m). The base of Mount McKinley is roughly a 2,000-foot plateau, giving it an actual rise of 18,000 feet (5,500 m).

The mountain is also characterized by extremely cold weather. A thermometer left exposed at an elevation of 15,000 feet on Mount McKinley over 19 years recorded a temperature of −100°F (−73.3°C) at some point during its exposure[citation needed]. There is also an unusually severe risk of altitude illness for climbers, due to not only its high elevation but also its high latitude. At the equator, a mountain as high as Mount McKinley would have 47% as much oxygen available on its summit as there is at sea level, but because of its latitude, the pressure on the summit of McKinley is even lower.

Mount McKinley

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Mount McKinley or Denali in Alaska is the highest mountain peak in North America, at a height of approximately 20,320 feet (6,194 m). It is the centerpiece of Denali National Park.

Bottled oxygen controversy

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Most expeditions use oxygen masks and tanks above 8,000 m (26,246 ft). Everest can be climbed without supplementary oxygen but this increases the risk to the climber. Humans do not think clearly with low oxygen, and the combination of severe weather, low temperatures, and steep slopes often require quick, accurate decisions.

The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everest has been controversial. George Mallory himself described the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, but he later concluded that it would be impossible to summit without it and consequently used it. When Tenzing and Hillary made the first successful summit in 1953 they used bottled oxygen. For the next twenty-five years, bottled oxygen was considered standard for any successful summit.

Reinhold Messner was the first climber to break the bottled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with Peter Habeler, made the first successful climb without it. Although critics alleged that he sucked mini-bottles of oxygen - a claim that Messner denied - Messner silenced them when he summited the mountain, without supplemental oxygen or support, on the more difficult northwest route, in 1980. In the aftermath of Messner's two successful ascents, the debate on bottled oxygen usage continued.

The aftermath of the 1996 disaster further intensified the debate. Jon Krakauer's Into Thin Air (1997) expressed the author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen. Krakauer wrote that the use of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths. The May 11, 1996 disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers on that day) attempting to ascend, causing bottlenecks at the Hillary Step and delaying many climbers, most of whom summited after the usual 2 p.m. turnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing pollution on Everest—many bottles have accumulated on its slopes—and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain. The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of the guide's role in using bottled oxygen.Guide Anatoli Boukreev's decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticized by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote The Climb) state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security.Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev was unable to directly help his clients descend. They state that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams, but when Adams slowed down[citation needed], Boukreev later descended faster and left him behind

Death zone

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While conditions for any area classified as a death zone apply to Mount Everest (altitudes higher than 8,000 m/26,246 ft), it is significantly more difficult for a climber to survive at the death zone on Mount Everest. Temperatures can dip to very low levels, resulting in frostbite of any body part exposed to the air. Because temperatures are so low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death by slipping and falling can also occur. High winds at these altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat to climbers. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about a third of sea level pressure, meaning there is about a third as much oxygen available to breathe as at sea level.

In May 2007 the Caudwell Xtreme Everest undertook a medical study of oxygen levels in human blood at extreme altitude. Over 200 volunteers climbed to Everest Base Camp where various medical tests were performed to examine blood oxygen levels. A small team also performed tests on the way to the summit.

Even at base camp the low level of available oxygen had direct effect on blood oxygen saturation levels. At sea level these are usually 98% to 99%, but at base camp this fell to between 85% and 87%. Blood samples taken at the summit indicated very low levels of oxygen present. A side effect of this is a vastly increased breathing rate, from 20-30[citation needed] breaths per minute to 80-90 breaths, leading to exhaustion just trying to breathe.

Lack of oxygen, exhaustion, extreme cold and the dangers of the climb all contribute to the death toll.

One death-dealing phenomenon, however, does not plague climbers — lightning. Lightning does not strike Mount Everest. NASA's lightning detection system does record significant lightning in the Tibet plateau, but none along the high Tibetan mountains, from about 2000 m (7,000 feet) and above.

2006 - David Sharp controversy

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Double-amputee climber Mark Inglis revealed in an interview with the press on May 23, 2006, that his climbing party, and many others, had passed a distressed climber, David Sharp, on May 15, sheltering under a rock overhang 450 meters below the summit, without attempting a rescue. The revelation sparked wide debate on climbing ethics, especially as applied to Everest. The climbers who left him said that the rescue efforts would be useless and only cause more deaths because of how many people it would have taken to pull him off.

Much of this controversy was captured by the Discovery Channel while filming the television program Everest: Beyond the Limit. A crucial decision affecting the fate of Sharp is shown in the program, where an early returning climber (Max Chaya) is descending and radios to his base camp manager (Russell Brice) that he has found a climber in distress. He is unable to identify Sharp, and Sharp had chosen to climb solo without any support, so he did not identify himself to other climbers. The base camp manager assumes that Sharp is part of a group that has abandoned him, and informs his climber that there is no chance of him being able to help Sharp [at 8000+ meters in altitude, barely anyone has the strength to help another man who is only semi conscious, and Max Chaya is only an amateur mountaineer]. As Sharp's condition deteriorates through the day and other descending climbers pass him, his opportunities for rescue diminish: his legs and feet curl from frost-bite, preventing him from walking; the later descending climbers are lower on oxygen and lack the strength to offer aid; time runs out for any Sherpas to return and rescue him. Most importantly, Sharp's decision to forgo all support leaves him with no margin for recovery.

As this debate raged, on May 26, Australian climber Lincoln Hall was found alive, after being declared dead the day before. He was found by a party of four climbers (Dan Mazur, Andrew Brash, Myles Osborne and Jangbu Sherpa) who, giving up their own summit attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with him and a party of 11 Sherpas sent up to carry him down. Hall later fully recovered. Similar actions have been recorded since, including on May 21, 2007, when Canadian climber Meagan McGrath initiated the successful high-altitude rescue of Nepali Usha Bista.

Ascent

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2003 - 50th Anniversary of First Ascent

2003 marked the 50th anniversary of the first ascent, and a record number of teams, including some very distinguished climbers, climbed or attempted to climb the mountain.

2005 - Helicopter landing

On 14 May 2005, pilot Didier Delsalle of France landed a Eurocopter AS 350 B3 helicopter on the summit of Mount Everest (without any witness) and took off after about four minutes. (His rotors were continually engaged, constituting a "hover landing", and avoiding the risks of relying on the snow to support the aircraft.) He thereby set rotorcraft world records, for highest of both landing (de facto) and take-off (formally).

Delsalle had also performed, two days earlier, a take-off from the South Col; some press reports suggested[citation needed] that the report of the summit landing was a misunderstanding of a South Col one.

2006 - North Face ski descent

On 16 May 2006, adventurers Tormod Granheim and Tomas Olsson skied the Norton Couloir from the summit to the North Col. During the descent Olsson fell an estimated 1700 meters to his death.

1996 disaster

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During the 1996 climbing season, fifteen people died trying to come down from the summit, making it the deadliest single year in Everest history. Eight of them died on May 11 alone. The disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions about the commercialization of Everest.

Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in one of the affected parties, and afterwards published the bestseller Into Thin Air which related his experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called The Climb. The dispute sparked a large debate within the climbing community. In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told New Scientist magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on May 11 suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge approximately 14%.

The storm's impact on climbers on the mountain's other side, the North Ridge, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Everest.

First successful ascent by Tenzing and Hillary

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In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt, returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt to reach the summit. The first pair (Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans) came within 100 m (300 feet) of the summit on 26 May, but turned back after becoming exhausted. As planned, their work in route finding and breaking trail and their caches of extra oxygen were of great aid to the following pair. Two days later, the expedition made its second and final assault on the summit with its second climbing pair, the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay from Nepal. They reached the summit at 11:30 a.m. local time on May 29, 1953 via the South Col Route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first. They paused at the summit to take photographs and buried a few sweets and a small cross in the snow before descending.

News of the expedition's success reached London on the morning of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation. Returning to Kathmandu a few days later, Hunt (a Briton) and Hillary (a subject of Elizabeth, through her role as head of state of New Zealand) discovered that they had been promptly knighted in the Order of the British Empire, a KBE, for the ascent. Tenzing (a subject of the King of Nepal) was granted the George Medal by the UK. Hunt was ultimately made a life peer in Britain, while Hillary became a founding member of the Order of New Zealand.

Early expeditions

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In 1885, Clinton Thomas Dent, president of the Alpine Club, suggests that climbing Mount Everest is possible in his book Above the Snow Line.

On June 8, 1924, George Mallory and Andrew Irvine, both of the United Kingdom, made an attempt on the summit via the north col/north ridge route from which they never returned.

On May 1, 1999, the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory's body in the predicted search area near the old Chinese camp. Controversy has raged in the mountaineering community as to whether or not one or both of them reached the summit 29 years before the confirmed ascent (and of course, safe descent) of Everest by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953. The general consensus among climbers has been that they did not.

Mallory had gone on a speaking tour of the United States the year before in 1923; it was then that he exasperatedly gave the famous reply, "Because it is there," to a New York journalist in response to hearing the question, "Why climb Everest?" for seemingly the thousandth time.

In 1933, Lady Houston, a British millionaire ex-showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formation of aircraft led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over the summit in an effort to deploy the British Union Flag at the top.

Early expeditions – such as Bruce's in the 1920s and Hugh Ruttledge's two unsuccessful attempts in 1933 and 1936 – tried to make an ascent of the mountain from Tibet, via the north face. Access was closed from the north to western expeditions in 1950, after the Chinese reasserted control over Tibet. However, in 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.

Northeast ridge

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The northeast ridge route begins from the north side of Everest in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the Rongbuk Glacier, setting up Base Camp at 5,180 m (17,000 ft) on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of Changtse at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Camp III (ABC - Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the North Col at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach Camp IV on the north col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route goes up the north face through a series of gullies and steepens into downsloping slabby terrain before reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From Camp VI, climbers will make their final summit push. Climbers must first make their way through three rock bands known as First Step: 27,890 feet - 28,000 feet, Second Step: 28,140 feet - 28,300 feet, and Third Step: 28,510 feet - 28,870 feet. (The Second Step includes a climbing aid called the "Chinese ladder", a metal ladder placed semi-permanently in 1975 by a party of Chinese climbers. It has been almost continuously in place since, and is used by virtually all climbers on the route.) Once above these steps, the final summit slopes (50 to 60 degrees) to the top.

China is paving a 130-km (66-mile) dirt road from Tingri County to its Base Camp in order to accommodate growing numbers of climbers on their side of the mountain. It will become the highest asphalt-paved road in the world. Construction began on June 18, 2007, at a cost of 150 million yuan (US$19.7 million). China also plans on routing the 2008 Olympic Torch Relay over Everest, going up the South Col route and back down the North Col route, on the way to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.

Southeast ridge

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The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,600 ft) on the south side of Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly into Lukla (2,860 m) from Kathmandu and pass through Namche Bazaar. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatization in order to prevent altitude sickness. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by yaks, dzopkyos (yak hybrids) and human porters to Base Camp on the Khumbu Glacier. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, they started from Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.

Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, Sherpas and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous Khumbu Icefall. Seracs, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I at 6,065 m (19,900 ft).

From Camp I, climbers make their way up the Western Cwm to the base of the Lhotse face, where Camp II or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a relatively flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral crevasses in the centre which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of Nuptse to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The high altitude and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.

From ABC, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to Camp III, located on a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp IV on the South Col at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by a 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in scrambling over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of interlayered marble, phyllite, and semischist which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.

On the South Col, climbers enter the death zone. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.

From Camp IV, climbers will begin their summit push around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers will first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,700 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early dawn light. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into waist deep snow, a serious avalanche hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit.

From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse" where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) Kangshung face. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "Hillary Step" at 8,760 m (28,750 ft).

Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and without fixed ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes - though the exposure on the ridge is extreme especially while traversing very large cornices of snow. With increasing numbers of people climbing the mountain in recent years, the Step has frequently become a bottleneck, with climbers forced to wait significant amounts of time for their turn on the ropes, leading to problems in getting climbers efficiently up and down the mountain. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a very loose and rocky section that has a very large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than a half-hour on "top of the world" as they realize the need to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in, afternoon weather becomes a serious problem, or supplemental oxygen tanks run out.

Climbing routes

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Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the northeast ridge from Tibet, as well as many other less frequently climbed routes. Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and is the more frequently-used route. It was the route used by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953 and the first recognised of fifteen routes to the top by 1996. This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design as the Chinese border was closed to foreigners in 1949. Reinhold Messner (Italy) reached the summit of the mountain solo for the first time, without supplementary oxygen or support, on the more difficult Northwest route via the North Col to the North Face and the Great Couloir, on August 20 1980. He climbed for three days entirely alone from his base camp at 6500 meters. This route has been noted as the 8th climbing route to the summit.

Most attempts are made during May before the summer monsoon season. A change in the jet stream at this time of year reduces the average wind speeds high on the mountain. While attempts are sometimes made after the monsoons in September and October, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons and the less stable weather patterns makes climbing more difficult.

Comparisons

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Everest is the mountain whose summit attains the greatest distance above sea level. Several other mountains are sometimes claimed as alternative "tallest mountains on Earth". Mauna Kea in Hawaii is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over 10,200 m (6.3 mi) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level.

By the same measure of base to summit, Denali, in Alaska, is also taller than Everest. Despite its height above sea level of only 6,193.6 m (20,320 ft), Denali sits atop a sloping plain with elevations from 300-900 m (1,000-3,000 ft), yielding a height above base in the range of 5,300-5,900 m (17,300-19,300 ft); a commonly quoted figure is 5,600 m (18,400 ft).[19] By comparison, reasonable base elevations for Everest range from 4,200 m (13,800 ft) on the south side to 5,200 m (17,100 ft) on the Tibetan Plateau, yielding a height above base in the range of 3,650 m (12,000 ft) to 4,650 m (15,300 ft).[13]

The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is 2,168 m (7,113 ft) farther from the Earth's centre (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km or 3,965.8 mi), because the Earth bulges at the Equator. However, Chimborazo attains a height of only 6,267 m (20,561 ft) above sea level, and by this criterion it is not even the highest peak of the Andes.

The deepest spot in the ocean is deeper than Everest is high: the Challenger Deep off the Mariana Islands, is so deep that if Everest could be placed into it there would be more[citation needed] than 2 km (more than 1.3 mi) of water covering it.

Measurement

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Radhanath Sikdar, an Indian mathematician and surveyor from Bengal, was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak in 1852, using trigonometric calculations based on measurements of "Peak XV" (as it was then known) made with theodolites from 240 km (150 miles) away as part of the Great Trigonometric Survey of India. Measurement could not be made from closer due to a lack of access to Nepal. Peak XV was found to be exactly 29,000 feet (8,839 m) high, but was publicly declared to be 29,002 feet (8,840 m). The arbitrary addition of 2 feet (0.6 m) was to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet was nothing more than a rounded estimate.

More recently, the mountain has been found to be 8,848 m (29,028 feet) high, although there is some variation in the measurements. The mountain K2 comes in second at 8,611 m (28,251 ft) high. On May 22, 2005, the People's Republic of China's Everest Expedition Team ascended to the top of the mountain. After several months' measurement and calculation, on October 9, 2005, the PRC's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m ± 0.21 m (29,017.16 ± 0.69 ft). They claimed it was the most accurate measurement to date. This height is based on the actual highest point of rock and not on the snow and ice covering it. The Chinese team also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m, which is in agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m. The snow and ice thickness varies over time, making a definitive height of the snow cap impossible to determine.

The elevation of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) was first determined by an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain, also using theodolites. It was subsequently reaffirmed by a 1975 Chinese measurement. In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expedition, directed by Bradford Washburn, anchored a GPS unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 ft), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device. Although it has not been officially recognized by Nepal, this figure is widely quoted. Geoid uncertainty casts doubt upon the accuracy claimed by both the 1999 and 2005 surveys.

A detailed photogrammetric map (at a scale of 1:50,000) of the Khumbu region, including the south side of Mount Everest, was made by Erwin Schneider as part of the 1955 International Himalayan Expedition, which also attempted Lhotse. An even more detailed topographic map of the Everest area was made in the late 1980s under the direction of Bradford Washburn, using extensive aerial photography.

It is thought that the plate tectonics of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit north-eastwards. Two accounts suggest the rates of change are 4 mm per year (upwards) and 3-6 mm per year (northeastwards), but another account mentions more lateral movement (27 mm), and even shrinkage has been suggested.

The Mount Everest region, and the Himalayas in general, are thought to be experiencing ice-melt due to global warming.[17] The exceptionally heavy southwest summer monsoon of 2005 is consistent with continued warming and augmented convective uplift on the Tibetan plateau to the north.

Naming

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The Tibetan name for Mount Everest is Chomolungma or Qomolangma ,and the related Chinese name is Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng . The Tibetan name, Chomolungma, gets a mention in the 2008 American film The Bucket List, in which one of the dying wishes of the two lead characters is to see the mountain. According to English accounts of the mid-19th century, the local name in Darjeeling for Mount Everest was Deodungha, or "Holy Mountain."In the 1960s, the Government of Nepal gave the mountain the official Nepali name of Sagarmatha , meaning "Goddess of the Sky".

In 1865, the mountain was given its English name by Andrew Waugh, the British surveyor-general of India. With both Nepal and Tibet closed to foreign travel, he wrote:

"I was taught by my respected chief and predecessor, Colonel Sir George Everest to assign to every geographical object its true local or native appellation. But here is a mountain, most probably the highest in the world, without any local name that we can discover, whose native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal. In the meantime the privilege as well as the duty devolves on me to assign…a name whereby it may be known among citizens and geographers and become a household word among civilized nations."

Waugh chose to name the mountain after George Everest, first using the spelling Mont Everest, and then Mount Everest. However, the modern pronunciation of Everest is in fact different from Sir George's own pronunciation of his surname.

In the late 19th century many European cartographers incorrectly believed that a native name for the mountain was "Gaurisankar". This was a result of confusion of Mount Everest with the actual Gauri Sankar, which, when viewed from Kathmandu, stands almost directly in front of Everest.

In the early 1960s, the Nepalese government realized that Mount Everest had no Nepalese name. This was because the mountain was not known and named in ethnic Nepal (that is, the Kathmandu valley and surrounding areas). The government set out to find a name for the mountain (the Sherpa/Tibetan name Chomolangma was not acceptable, as it would have been against the idea of unification (Nepalization) of the country. The name Sagarmatha was thus invented by Baburam Acharya.

In 2002, the Chinese People's Daily newspaper published an article making a case against the continued use of the English name for the mountain in the Western world, insisting that it should be referred to by its Tibetan name. The newspaper argued that the Chinese (in nature a Tibetan) name preceded the English one, as Mount Qomolangma was marked on a Chinese map more than 280 years ago.

Mount Everest

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Mount Everest, also called Chomolungma or Qomolangma or Sagarmatha is the highest mountain on Earth, as measured by the height of its summit above sea level, which is 8,848 meters or 29,028 feet. The mountain, which is part of the Himalaya range in High Asia, is located on the border between Nepal and Tibet. By the end of the 2007 climbing season there had been 3,679 ascents to the summit by 2,436 individuals. There have been 210 deaths on the mountain, where conditions are so difficult that most corpses have been left where they fell; some are visible from standard climbing routes.

Climbers range from experienced mountaineers to relative novices who count on their paid guides to get them to the top. This means climbers are a significant source of tourist revenue for Nepal, whose government also requires all prospective climbers to obtain an expensive permit, costing up to $25,000 (USD) per person.

Mental Preparedness

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It should not be overlooked what the will to live means in a life and death situation. All of the training and tools in the world will prove of little or no consequence without the desire to live. Stories of heroic feats of survival by regular people with little or no training are not uncommon. Even with a strong understanding of the way we may be mentally affected, even a trained survival expert may feel the crushing effects of psychological strain during duress. In order to overcome these affects it is important to study stress and how it may affect us both good and bad.

Studying stress will reveal to us that while it may not always seem like it, stress is a necessary evil and belongs for not only for malice but good as well. It serves as a measuring stick for our success, it presents one with challenges, and it is a good way to show us how far we can bend and not break. Stress sometimes has a nice way of pointing out that things could indeed be much worse. On the flip side of the coin too much stress can be a awful thing. The carnage that stress can breed within a human being is almost without limits. Too much stress can lead to forgetfulness, increased propensity to making mistakes, lessened energy, outbursts of rage, and carelessness.

Emotions are hard wired into our DNA. Survival situations are bound to invoke strong emotional reactions from anyone evolved. There are a few emotions that most often accompany this type of event. They drastically lessen our ability to combat the situation. It is not something that initially comes to mind when thinking of surviving but they are as important as any other survival skill.

There are 6 emotions that must be overcome to allow a chance at survival

* Fear - Once placed into a survival situation one of the initial reactions for anyone is fear. It is a perfectly normal reaction however fear is the enemy. It drastically lessens our ability to make clear decisions, which ultimately will lesson the chance for survival. In an effort to minimize our fears, we can train in realistic situations to condition ourselves to have the mentality needed to increase our confidence and more effectively manage fear.
* Anxiety – Typically anxiety and fear run hand in hand with one another. It may start as a uneasy feeling in the pit of our stomach but by the time the mind is added into the situation it may quickly spiral out of control. Anxiety will often times take over the mind and quickly make it difficult to make decisions with any clairvoyance. Anxiety must be fought through in order to focus on the tasks at hand. Typically once some of the critical survival needs have been met, anxiety will be easier to keep at bay.
* Anger – It is inevitable that in a survival situation there are going to be problems. With the endless possibilities of things that can go wrong and probably will to imagine that tempers may flair should not come as a surprise. Anger can sap one’s drive necessary to want to survive. Finding other ways to channel this emotion will prove more useful than losing ones temper.
* Depression – An overall sense of malaise is not uncommon in wilderness. Being alone in the wilderness trying to survive is almost certainly bound to bring about a depressed state. Overwhelming depression can lead to the body shutting down and not unlike anxiety can also cause a human being to give up hope. Staying positive can allow one to combat this.
* Guilt – Often accompanying a survival situation is loss of life. The guilt may not even come from someone taking responsibility for the person’s death, rather a sense of guilt as they are alive and the other person is dead.
* Boredom & Loneliness – An often unanticipated side affect of being in a survival situation. Boredom or loneliness can both contribute to lowering morale. It is important to be able to keep your mind busy and you spirits up it may be one of the most critical skills to survive.

Training

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Survival Training has many components, mental competence and physical fitness being two. Mental competence includes the skills listed in this article, as well as the ability to overcome panic and think clearly. Physical fitness includes, among other abilities, carrying loads over long distances on rough terrain. Theoretical knowledge of survival skills is useful only if it can be applied effectively in the wilderness. Almost all Survival Skills are environment specific and require training in a particular environment.

Survival Training is broken down into three types, or schools; Modern Wilderness Survival, Bushcraft, and Primitive Survival Techniques. Modern Wilderness Survival teaches the skills needed to survive Short-Term (1 to 4 Days) and Medium-Term (4 to 40 Days) survival situations. Bushcraft is the combination of Modern Wilderness Survival and useful Primitive Survival Techniques. It normally splits its skill acquisition between Medium-Term Survival Techniques (4 to 40 Days) and Long-Term Survival Techniques (40 Days Plus). Primitive Survival Techniques teaches the skills need to survive over the Long-Term (40 days plus). Many primitive technology skills require much more practice and may be more environment specific.

Several organizations offer wilderness survival training. Course ranges from one day to field courses lasting as long as a month. In addition to teaching survival techniques for conditions of limited food, water, and shelter, many organizations that teach bushcraft and Primitive Survival seek to engender appreciation and understanding of the lifestyles of pre-industrialized cultures.

There are several books that teach one how to survive in dangerous situations, and schools train children what to do in the event of an earthquake or fire. Some cities also have contingency plans in case of a major disaster, such as hurricanes or tornadoes.

Other survival skills

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For long-term survival some other skills are useful:

* Knife or Multitool - usage and sharpening (a knife or Multitool is very important for all survival situations and for many aspects of bushcraft)

A sheath knife of high carbon steel with a 4 to 6 inch blade is invaluable for the creation of tools, splitting wood for fire building using a baton, building shelters and many other skills.

* Climbing and Mountaineering techniques
* Ropework
o Making rope from materials such as the inner bark of trees, other plant fibers, or animal sinews
o Knowledge of knots and their applications
* Making a raft or boat
* Weapons are an essential part of a large survival outfit. Weapons protect you and those around you and allow you to procure food through hunting. There are many points of view on this issue but by and large, a good 22 long rifle will serve to procure game and provide for moderate protection from predators both the four legged and two legged variety.
* Be sure to get proper training to be safe with firearms.
* Basic primitive weapons can be important tools: they include spears, Vietnam crossbows, longbows, the throwing stick, clubs etc. Many primitive tools can also fill the weapon class as well such as a stone axe. First hand instruction is essential.

Navigation

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Survival situations are resolved by finding one's way to safety. This requires some navigation or movement:

* Celestial navigation, using the sun and the night sky
* Reading a map (particularly a topographic map), together with a compass
* Using a GPS receiver, if one is available

First aid

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First aid (wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries that would otherwise kill or incapacitate him/her. Common and dangerous injuries include:

* Lacerations, which may be infected
* Bites from venomous animals, such as snakes
* Bone fractures
* Sprains, particularly of the ankle
* Burns

The survivor may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or naturally-occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.

Food

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Food is not urgently needed in survival situations, since a human can survive for several weeks without it. However, much like dehydration, hunger can bring about many consequences long before it causes death, such as:

* Irritability and low morale
* Weakness
* Loss of mental clarity, such as confusion, disorientation, or poor judgment
* Weakened immune system
* Difficulty maintaining body temperature

It is actually rather easy to find food in most wild environments, provided one knows where to look. A basic knowledge of animal trapping, hunting, and fishing will provide meat. Equally important is a knowledge of edible plants, fungi, and lichens. One cannot always rely on the most abundant or most easily accessible type of food. To survive for long periods of time, one must maintain a balanced diet. In order to do this, one must consume a balanced variety of foods.

Many survival books promote the "Universal Edibility Test": allegedly, one can distinguish edible foods from toxic ones by a series of progressive exposures to skin and mouth prior to ingestion with waiting periods and checks for symptoms. However, many other experts including Ray Mears and John Kallas[9] reject this method, in main part because a very small amount of some "potential foods" can cause anything from gastric distress to illness or death. An additional step called the "scratch test" is sometimes included. In this step (before mouth contact of the proposed food) one makes an abrasion on the surface of an area of skin (such as with fingernails) and then lightly rubs some of the food product on the abrasion. Foods that cause surface inflammation, discomfort, itching or eruption should be avoided.

Finding food in the wild depends on your environment (i.e. vegetation, animals, and water sources).

Fire

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A fire is as important as a safe water supply, because of its many uses:

* Boiling water to kill pathogens
* Cooking food, including wild-caught fish and game
* Staying warm, particularly when wet
* Repelling dangerous animals and certain insects (e.g. mosquitoes)
* Provides a sense of companionship and morale boost
* Signaling to rescuers (bright at night, smoky by day)

The area chosen should be flat and dry, with protection from wind.

Water

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A human can survive a maximum of three days without the intake of water, assuming you are at sea level, at room temperature, and a relative humidity.

In colder temperatures and/or with rain or snow the length or likelihood of survival would be greatly reduced. In addition to the aforementioned priorities, length of survival also depends on amount of physical exertion. A typical person will lose 2-3 liters of water per day in ordinary conditions, but more in hot, dry, or cold weather.

A lack of water causes dehydration, resulting in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration reduces endurance and impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Your body requires 4L to 6L of water or other liquids each day in the wilderness to avoid dehydration and to keep your body functioning properly.

Dark yellow or brown urine indicates dehydration. Because of these risks, a safe supply of drinking water must be located as soon as a shelter is built (or even before, depending on conditions).

Water can be gathered in numerous ways: scooped out of a creek or pond; rainwater can be caught in makeshift containers; collect dew from vegetation in clothing articles. Many tree roots and vines contain water. The cactus is also a source of water, confirming the myth- pulp can be removed from the broken stem.

In a survival situation, any water supply may be contaminated with pollutants or pathogens (see Potability of backcountry water). Although little can be done to remove molecular contaminants, particles and microorganisms can be removed and/or killed (see Portable water purification). In a beach situation, digging in the sand below sea level, the sand well will fill with drinkable water; it may taste salty or brackish, but the sand acts as a filter reducing the salt content the further you dig inland. Stagnant water can be made drinkable by filtration through a sieve of charcoal.

Animal blood is not suitable for rehydration as it may be diseased. In addition, because of the nutrients it contains, it requires energy to digest. Mammals all have blood-borne pathogens so the animal must also be cooked. Urine contains salt and other toxins, which also makes it unsuitable to drink, although it can be refined in a solar still.

Many birds, mammals, and some insects, such as bees, ants, and mason flies, are reliable indications of water, either through a stream or a soaked patch of earth.

The U.S. Army survival manual recommends that you use your water whenever thirsty to avoid "voluntary" dehydration. Other groups recommend rationing water through "water discipline".

While finding water is most important, preventing water loss is also an issue. Resting, avoiding smoking, and breathing through the nose are recommended.

Survival priorities

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Human survival priorities are found in the "Rule of Three":

1. Humans cannot survive more than three minutes without air (O2)
2. Humans cannot survive more than three hours exposed to extreme low-temperature
3. Humans cannot survive more than three days without water (H20)
4. Humans cannot survive more than three weeks without food

The Rule of Three should be viewed as generalities. The record is 10 minutes, 17 seconds without air; the crew of a boat lasted 8 days without water; people have survived without food for over 40 days.

In most survival situations, three priorities must be addressed before any other needs are met:

1. Finding or making shelter is the most important because it allows a person to stay protected from the elements.
2. The next priority after finding shelter is water. The length of survival mostly depends upon climate conditions and physical exertion.
3. Food is the third essential for survival. This is especially important during winter, as one has higher calorie-burning needs.

These priorities may change depending upon environmental factors.

A shelter will protect one from potentially disastrous weather, help prevent hypothermia, and allow restful sleep. It will also boost how you feel emotionally, as it will become a base or home. Therefore, in typical survival situations, a shelter should be able to be moved with you, if possible, and be set up quickly. If one spends too much time on a shelter it takes away from other survival tasks.

A shelter should provide a somewhat comfortable place to sleep. To this end, it should account for the following:

* Immovable rocks, animal nests, and other obstacles and hazards should be avoided.
* Dry watercourses may be flat, sandy, and comfortable to sleep on, but they will flood in a storm.
* Sunlight provides warmth (which is not always welcome), and help one to wake up in the morning. However, sunny, open areas are vulnerable to wind.
* Heat transfer: an excessively large or well-ventilated shelter will not retain warmth well.
* Flashing (weatherproofing) to provide protection from elements.
* A cave would be a very useful shelter because it is very resistant to rain water getting in and maintains a constant temperature. Unfortunately, caves can present additional problems such as ground water, dampness and wildlife. Bears also nest in caves, so before selecting a cave to stay in, you should check it for signs of inhabitance.

The simplest and most mobile shelter is a tarp, supported by make-shift frame work or rope. Large leaves, such as ferns or fir branches, can be added to a latticework of branches. Ferns on a shelter provide insect repellent. Branches propped against a fallen tree make a simple and effective refuge, but animals such as ants and snakes may nest under the tree. With some practice, more advanced shelters such as a debris shelter can be constructed without modern tools or implements.

Survival skills

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Survival skills are skills that may help everyone to survive dangerous situations (such as storms or earthquakes), or in dangerous places (such as the desert, the mountains, and the jungle). Useful skills include lighting a fire, finding shelter, making water safe to drink, finding and identifying food, treating injuries, and climbing, swimming, and using specific or makeshift tools.

Each type of wilderness challenges a person with a different range of dangers (see hazards of outdoor activities). An environment may be dry, wet, hot, cold, high altitude, low altitude, desert, rural, urban, wilderness, subterranean, or an island. There are four basic necessities of life which apply in all of these cases: shelter, water, fire, and food. A fifth is oxygen for high altitudes and subterranean environments, and also specific survival situations such as drowning and landslide/avalanche.

Survival skills used on a more permanent basis, or as a component of daily life are referred to as bushcraft.

Developments in outdoor equipment and survival techniques have skewed the scale towards man- if one is prepared, but there is nothing to replace experience in a survival situation. Those who are most prepared physically and mentally stand the greatest chance of survival.

Free solo climbing

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Free solo climbing, also known as free soloing, is a form of free climbing where the climber (the free soloist) foregoes ropes, harnesses and other protective gear while ascending and relies only on his or her physical strength, climbing ability, and psychological fortitude to avoid a fatal fall. Free solo climbing should not be confused with free climbing, in which gear is used for safety in case of a fall, but not to assist the climb. Less risky alternatives to free soloing include bouldering (climbing at heights low enough that a fall would typically be safe) and deep water soloing (climbing where falling would result in harmlessly falling into water).

Reasons for free soloing given by high-profile climbers include the simplicity and speed with which one can climb, a feeling of intense concentration required, and the adrenaline rush. The practice is mostly confined to routes familiar to the climber and whose difficulty lies well within the climber's abilities. However, inherent risks such as loose rocks or sudden change in weather are always present, and some high-profile climbers have been killed this way.

Yosemite climbing program manager and park ranger Mark Fincher said there has been only one confirmed death from free-soloing at the park, that of Derek Hersey, a high-profile free-soloist who died on Sentinel Rock in 1993. The challenge of free soloing single pitch routes is mainly the mental difficulty for the climber of staying focused on what he is doing. Free soloing should usually not be hard in a physical sense. This is not to say, however, that on longer routes unpredictable weather and rock conditions cannot create grave hazards for climbers. Hersey, though a master of solo climbing's physical and mental demands, is believed to have encountered rain during his fatal solo ascent of the 1000-meter Sentinel Rock.[1]

Practitioners

The sport has produced a number of well-known practitioners, made famous by remarkable photos of a climber totally alone and unprotected on sheer cliffs. One of the most famous is Frenchman Alain Robert ("spiderman"), who has scaled dozens of skyscrapers around the world — a sport known as buildering — and many rock walls, without using any safety equipment.

Some of the driving forces in rock climbing and free soloing from 1900 to today: Paul Preuss, Henry Barber, John Bachar, Derek Hersey, Peter Croft, Alexander Huber, Dan Osman, Dean Potter, Alain Robert and Michael Reardon.

Safer alternatives

Free soloing on seacliffs, where a climber falling into deep water may avoid injury, is known as deep water soloing - however, this should only be carried out at very specific sites which have been properly ascertained to be safe for the purpose. Otherwise, free soloing on seacliffs is viewed as particularly dangerous due to the unique combination of hazards such as loose rock, tides, submerged boulders, and difficulty of rescue.

Remaining close to the ground (typically below 25 ft.) and using protective mats is known as bouldering and is another, safer alternative.

Indoor Climbing

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Indoor Climbing is an increasingly popular form of rock climbing performed on artificial structures that attempt to mimic the experience of real rock climbing but in a more controlled environment.

The first indoor walls tended to be made primarily of brick leaving little scope for interesting routes as the steepness of the wall and variety of the hand holds were somewhat limited.

The most common construction method involves screwing resin hand holds on to wooden boards. The boards can be of varying height & steepness (from completely horizontal 'roofs' to not even vertical 'slabs') and have a large variety of holds (from very small 'crimpers' to huge 'jugs') attached. This variety, coupled with the ability for the climbs to be changed by attaching the holds onto the wall differently has resulted in indoor climbing becoming a very successful sport.

Indoor climbing has also seen an increase in popularity in areas with rainy climates where climbing outdoors is sometimes difficult. Besides offering an alternative during inclement weather, many working adults find that they can get to the gym after work and still climb even though it is too dark outside. In order to improve in any sport, consistent practice is crucial. With the advent of indoor climbing, weather, seasonal difficulties, and busy schedules are less of an obstacle to consistent improvement, and enjoyment of the sport.

The proliferation of indoor climbing gyms has increased the accessibility, and thus the popularity, of the sport of climbing. Since environmental conditions (ranging from the structural integrity of the climbing surfaces, to equipment wear, to proper use of equipment) can be more controlled in such a setting, indoor climbing is perhaps a safer and more friendly introduction to the sport. In fact birthday parties and children's teams are common at many rock gyms.

This sense of security has a downside of course - a new gym climber may head to the cliffs and find they do not have all of the necessary skills for climbing in a setting without preplaced anchors, and explicit routefinding.

Bouldering

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Bouldering is a style of rock climbing undertaken without a rope and normally limited to very short climbs so that a fall will not result in serious injury. It is typically practiced on large boulders or artificial man-made boulders. However, it may also be practiced at the base of larger rock faces, or even on buildings or public architecture (see buildering).

Bouldering Basics

Bouldering is a style of climbing emphasizing power, strength, and dynamics. Its focus is on individual moves or short sequences of moves, unlike traditional climbing or sport climbing, which generally demand more endurance over longer stretches of rock where the difficulty of individual moves is not as great. Boulder routes are commonly referred to as problems (a British appellation) because the nature of the climb is often short, curious, and much like problem solving. Sometimes these problems are eliminates, meaning certain artificial restrictions are imposed.

To reduce the risk of injury from a fall, climbers rarely go higher than 3-5 meters above the ground (anything over 7 meters is generally considered to be free-soloing, although such climbs might also be termed high-ball bouldering problems). For further protection, climbers typically put a bouldering mat (crash pad) on the ground to break their fall. Lastly, climbers often have one or more spotters, who work to direct the climber's body toward the crash pad during a fall, while protecting the climber's head from hazards.

Bouldering is increasing in popularity; bouldering areas are common in indoor climbing gyms and some climbing gyms are dedicated solely to bouldering. Children are joining the sport now as well as adults. In fact, studies have found that young climbers develop better skills as adults from their experience with youthful disadvantages such as height and strength.[citation needed]

Equipment

One of the major appeals of bouldering is its relatively scant equipment requirements. Although nothing is actually required, common equipment includes:

* Loose, powdered chalk as a hand drying agent while climbing.
* A mattress-like object called a crash pad. These are generally thick, rectangular foam pads with a heavy-duty fabric shell. They are opened and placed at the base of a boulder to cover irregularities in the landing and provide some cushion if the climber falls.
* Climbing shoes, for better traction and edging capabilities.
* A brush, or several brushes of differing sizes, typically with nylon bristles but sometimes coarse animal hair, is used to clean holds and is often mounted on a telescopic pole to allow greater reach.
* Sports tape is useful for covering cuts or blisters, as well as providing support for joints that may have been strained.

It is not uncommon to see people bouldering with shoes, a chalkbag, and a small mat to wipe their feet on.

Ratings

As in other types of climbing, bouldering has developed its own grading systems for comparing the difficulty of problems. The most commonly used grading systems are the Fontainebleau system which ranges from 1 to 8c, and the John Sherman V-grade system, beginning at V0 and increasing by integers to a current top grade of V16 (The Wheel of Life by Dai Koyamada in the Grampians, Australia). Both scales are open-ended at the top, and thus the upper grade of these systems is always increasing as boulderers ascend more difficult problems.

History

Bouldering's documented origins may be found in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy in the last quarter of the 19th century [2]. The British coined the word bouldering at that time. For many years, bouldering was usually viewed as training for climbers, although, in the 1930s and late 1940s, Pierre Allain and his companions enjoyed bouldering for its own sake in Fontainebleau, considered by many to be the Mecca of bouldering. The first climber to actually make bouldering his primary specialty (in the mid 1950s) and to advocate its acceptance as a legitimate sport not restricted to a particular area was John Gill, an amateur gymnast who found the challenge and movement of bouldering enjoyable.

Terminology

Beta
Any helpful tips, solutions to problems, guides, tricks, etc. that one climber passes on to another.

Boulderer
Any person participating in bouldering.

Crimp
A type of hold where the climber can fit only their fingertips on the hold. A crimp may be 'closed,' in which the thumb is pressed over the index finger to strengthen one's grip, or the crimp may be 'open,' where the thumb does not contact the fingers. Closed crimps, while stronger, put more stress on the hand and are generally regarded to pose a higher injury risk.

Dab
Touching anything other than the climbing surface in any form, whether intentional or not; it is grounds for immediate termination of the send attempt.

Dyno
Shortened form of dynamic movement. Essentially any movement that requires you to jump or swing from one hold to another. Technically, a dyno is a move that, if not completed successfully (by catching the next hold), will result in a fall.

Eliminate
Any problem that eliminates some of the holds on a natural way up the boulder, maximizing the total number of climbs in a limited space.

Flag
Extending a leg as a counter-balance without placing your foot on a hold.

Flash
Completing a problem on the first try with no falls, but with beta.

Highball
A term for a boulder that is so high, falling when close to the top could cause serious injury. Some highballs have anchor bolts at the top, to allow for protected top-rope climbing.

Hold
Any piece of rock that you can grab or place your foot onto, and pull/push yourself up.

Jug
A hold that is large enough that you can reach your entire hand around, making it a good hold to pull yourself up with.

Matching
Matching implies that the feet or hands are on the same hold.

Offwidth
An awkward crack or split in the rock, that is too wide to jam a hand in, yet not wide enough to back and foot. These typically require a combination of several different methods to achieve a good hold.

Onsight
To ascend a problem on the first try with no falls and no beta.

Problem
A generic term describing challenging manoeuvres, normally on a boulder or small outcrop.

Sit Start
A start to a problem beginning with the boulderer sitting on either the ground or a crash pad, at the lowest point of a route. Typically, starting from a sit start increases the difficulty of a route.

Sloper
A hold that tends to slope, or is round. Sometimes very difficult to grasp.

Smearing
Pushing with the ball of the foot where there is no hold.

Spotter
A person who tends to the safety of the climber. This may include duties such as moving the crashpad, removing dangerous objects in the fall zone, and physically cushioning or modifying the trajectory of the climber in the event of a fall.

Traverse
Generally a horizontal climb that involves traversing across a face or overhang, or sometimes around a boulder, occasionally finishing off at an arête in order to top out.

To send
To complete a problem.

Top out
To complete a problem by getting to the top of the boulder where one can stand upright.

Bouldering Areas

The region around Fontainebleau near Paris is particularly famous for its beautiful and concentrated bouldering sites. Well-known areas include Stanage (UK), Hueco Tanks (Texas), Castle Hill (New Zealand), Bishop (California), Yosemite (California), Rocktown (Georgia), Rocklands (South Africa), Hampi (India) and Horse Pens 40 (Alabama) amongst others.

Top-rope climbing

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Top-rope climbing (or Top roping) is a technique in climbing in which the rope runs from the belayer at the foot of the route through one or more carabiners connected to an anchor at the top of the route and back down to the climber. Assuming that the anchor holds, the route is predominantly bottom-to-top and the belayer pays attention, the climber cannot fall more than a short distance and can safely attempt the most difficult routes. Most top rope anchors can be reached through non-technical routes.

Top roping is most often done on routes that are otherwise unleadable for one reason or another. Top roping has a long and proud history in the climbing world because of its low environmental impact. It is also the most commonly used way to climb at indoor climbing walls. It is also used on some areas or types of rock where other methods would be unsafe or damage the rock, for example the sandstone rocks of Kent and Sussex in south-east England. Here the rock is soft and prone to erosion, so placing protection into the rock would be both damaging and unreliable, and is therefore banned. Top-roping from permanent anchors and solo climbing are the only forms of ascent allowed.

By contrast, in some other areas, top roping is frowned upon for various reasons - including possible erosion from people trying routes too difficult for them; lack of suitable top-rope anchor points, or occasionally more esoteric ethical reasons.

For top roping, a low-stretch (static or semi-static) rope is recommended to prevent rope wear, rock erosion and to ensure maximum security in the event of a fall. Most practitioners would recommend the use of two screwgate carabiners, to provide backup in case one becomes undone. A low-stretch sling or additional rope to attach these to the anchor point is also widely used. Where the anchor point is not a firm bolt, at least two separate points should be used.
Climber being lowered by the belayer, with weight on the top rope and hands outstretched for balance while "walking" down.
Climber being lowered by the belayer, with weight on the top rope and hands outstretched for balance while "walking" down.

It is important to arrange the system in such a way that as little moving rope comes into contact with the rock as possible - it is possible to irreversibly damage ropes otherwise. Multiple slings, or a long, adjustable-length sling are often the best options.

Top roped climbing is often (psychologically) easier and safer than sport climbing, in which the lead climber clips into preplaced bolts in the rock, or traditional climbing, in which protection is placed along the route by a lead climber. Many novice climbers initially experience the sport through top roping.

Sport climbing

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Sport climbing is a style of rock climbing that relies on permanent anchors fixed to the rock, especially bolts, for protection. Sport climbing places an emphasis on gymnastic ability, strength and endurance, while virtually eliminating the need to place protection while climbing. Also see Free_climbing.

Basics
Sport climbing equipment. From left to right, top to bottom are: rope, helmet, climbing shoes, harness, chalk bag, belay device, and quick draws.
Sport climbing equipment. From left to right, top to bottom are: rope, helmet, climbing shoes, harness, chalk bag, belay device, and quick draws.

A route suitable for sport climbing has pre-placed bolts following a line up a rock face. Sport climbs are typically between 20 and 120 feet in length, and have eight to twelve bolts (some routes may have as few as three bolts, while other routes may have twenty-five or more).

Sport climbing can be undertaken with relatively little equipment. Equipment used in sport climbing includes:

* A dynamic rope
* Quickdraws
* A belay device
* Climbing harnesses for belayer and climber
* A few runners
* A helmet is recommended
* Climbing Shoes and chalk bag are normally used, although not technically necessary

Two quickdraws. The left side of the draws are clipped directly to the bolt. The rope will be clipped through the right side.
Two quickdraws. The left side of the draws are clipped directly to the bolt. The rope will be clipped through the right side.

To lead a sport climb is to ascend a route with a rope tied to the climber's harness, and with the loose end of the rope handled by a belayer. As each bolt is reached along the route, the climber attaches a quickdraw to the bolt, and then clips the rope through the hanging end of the quickdraw. This bolt is now protecting the climber in the event of a fall. At the top of sport routes, there is typically a two-bolt anchor that can be used to return the climber to the ground or previous rappel point.

Because sport routes do not require placing protection, the climber can concentrate on the difficulty of the moves rather than placing protection or the consequences of a fall.

Sport climbing differs from traditional climbing with respect to the type and placement of protection. Traditional climbing uses mostly removeable protection (such as cams or nuts), and tends to minimize the usage of pre-placed protection. Sport climbing typically involves single pitch routes, whereas traditional climbing can include single-pitch routes as well as longer, multi-pitch ascents. There are areas like El Potrero Chico that feature multi-pitch sport climbs, but longer routes generally lack pre-placed anchors due to economical, logistical or ethical reasons.

The drilling required to insert expansion bolts invariably damages the rock this being the main reason, that traditional climbers disdain the use of bolts.

Rock types that produce good sport climbs include limestone, granite and quartzite, though sport climbs can be found on almost all rock types.

Ratings

Sport climbs are assigned subjective ratings to indicate difficulty. The type of rating depends on the geographic location of the route, since different countries and climbing communities use different rating systems.

The Ewbank rating system, used in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, is a numerical open-ended system, starting from 1, which you can (at least in theory) walk up, up to 34 (as of 2004).

The French rating system considers the overall difficulty of the climb, taking into account the difficulty of the moves and the length of climb. This differs from most grading systems where one rates a climbing route according to the most difficult section (or single move). Grades are numerical, starting at 1 (very easy) and the system is open-ended. Each numerical grade can be subdivided by adding a letter (a, b or c). Examples: 2, 4, 4b, 6a, 7c. An optional + (no -) may be used to further differentiate difficulty. Many countries in Europe use a system with similar grades but not necessarily matching difficulties. Sport climbing in Britain and Ireland uses the French grading system, often prefixed with the letter "F".

In the United States, the Yosemite Decimal System is used to rate sport climbs. Current grades for sport routes vary between 5.0 (very, very easy) to 5.15 (ridiculously hard), although the system is open-ended. Past 5.10, letter grades between a and d are sometimes used for further subdivision (e.g. 5.11a or 5.10d). Pluses and minuses may also be used (e.g. 5.9+ or 5.11-).[1] Originally, the YDS rating was designed to rate the difficulty of the hardest move on a given route.However, modern sport grades often take into account other features such as length and sustainedness.

Terminology

Sport climbers have developed their own terminology. For example, sport climbers have terms to categorize a successful climb based on the number of attempts and pre-existing knowledge of a given route:

* An ascent is considered an onsight if climbed the first try, without falls and without prior knowledge of the route.
* An ascent is considered a flash if climbed the first try, without falls but with some prior knowledge such as, but not limited to, watching another person climb it or discussing it with another climber.
* An ascent is considered a red point once a climber has attempted a given route and failed to climb it on the first attempt, but succeeded on a subsequent attempt while placing quickdraws.
* An ascent is considered a pink point once a climber has attempted a given route and failed to climb it on the first attempt, but succeeded on a subsequent attempt while climbing on pre-placed quickdraws. In some climbing communities, a pink point is considered to be a red point. In other climbing communities, this term has been abandoned entirely.

Routes that are at or above the individual climber's skill level often require working to red point (e.g. "We spent the summer working Ro Sham Po at the Red River Gorge in Kentucky."). A climber may return to a climb between two and hundreds of times to work out the moves, memorize the movements, and develop the strength and stamina required to complete the route. It is not uncommon for climbers to work routes for months or years.

A route that is being worked is considered that climber's project. Upon success, a climber is said to have sent a given route. (e.g. "Pete was working Ro Sham Po all summer, and in October he sent it.") The term can be used in the present tense as send. (e.g. "We were all yelling at Pete, 'send it!'")

Prior knowledge of a route passed between climbers is referred to as beta. Beta can be information about difficult moves, specific sequences, or any other information that aids in ascent. In particular, a climber may be interested in getting beta for the crux of a route. The crux is the most difficult section of a route. (e.g. "Pete got a bunch of beta for the crux moves on Ro Sham Po from Bill, who sent the route last year.")

Some of the terminology described above was developed by sport climbers, and has been adopted by other forms of climbing, such as bouldering and traditional climbing.

Ethics

The ethics climbers adopt toward their sport are not always steadfast, and they often depend on the venue. The following examples are merely outlines that do not always hold true.

Bolting

Whether a route should be bolted as a sport climb is often in dispute. In some areas, including a large part of the United States, if a route cannot be safely climbed with the use of traditional gear, it is acceptable to bolt it. However, in much of the U.K., similar bolting is widely considered unacceptable. Additionally, the method of bolting may often be challenged. Many early sport routes were bolted by the first ascentionist, on lead. However, it is now considered acceptable in most areas to place bolts while rappelling, before climbing the route.

First Ascents

Sometimes, a newly bolted route is considered "red tagged," and ethics dictate that the person who bolted the route should be the only climber to attempt it until they can send it. Other times, the bolter will allow the route they developed to become an "open project" that anyone can try. Ascents of reserved routes have led to a number of controversies in the sport climbing world.

Chipping, Comfortizing, and Reinforcing

Changing the natural features of rock is often frowned upon, but in many parts of the world it is still accepted to some extent. At some areas, "chipping" of the rock with a chisel or similar tool to create a hold that did not exist naturally is considered acceptable. This is particularly true in some quarries as well as some European crags. However, at many other areas, local ethics absolutely forbid this.

Comfortizing holds often involves aggressively cleaning a route to the point where sharp holds have been filed down, often making them somewhat easier to use. While many climbers frown on this, in some areas comfortizing is considered acceptable to a point.

Reinforcing rock with glue is the most widely accepted modification to natural features in the sport climbing world. When a popular route is climbed over and over, holds may become looser and closer to breaking. Sometimes, these holds will be reinforced to prevent them from breaking. Other times, if a hold entirely breaks off, it may be glued back on. In most areas, these practices are considered acceptable if done neatly.

Sending

Sometimes, an ascent or the style in which it is done will come into dispute. For example, a leader who experiences tension on their rope from their belayer while climbing without falling may have not made a valid ascent, through no fault of their own. Additionally, the line between an onsight and a flash is often disputed. Some climbers consider any knowledge of a route, including its grade, to be beta that invalidates an onsight. However, other climbers will go so far as to belay another climber on a route and still claim that they did not have enough prior knowledge to move from the onsight realm to the flash realm.

Not Sending

If a climber fails to onsight or flash a route, they may decide to "work" it by attempting to climb it despite falling and hanging on the rope. However, at popular destinations, multiple parties of climbers will often line up to try a route. A climber working a route may spend an inordinate amount of time on it, preventing other parties from climbing it. This is often frowned upon, particularly if the climber is toproping rather than leading.

Traditional climbing

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Traditional climbing, or Trad climbing, is a style of climbing that emphasizes the skills necessary for establishing routes in an exploratory fashion. Before the advent of sport climbing, the normal style of unaided rock climbing was what is now referred to as "traditional". Trad climbing usually involves the leader ascending a section of rock while placing their own protective devices as he/she climbs. Route finding, effective gear placements, self control, and good climbing skills are essential. Normally, such climbs are not previewed or rehearsed on a top rope (with or without tension), and emphasis is placed on passing difficult sections on the first try. As a form of free climbing, only the limbs and body of the climber are used to effect upward progress, and protective devices are placed solely to catch the climber in the event of a fall.

Types of Protection

The majority of the protection placed while leading a traditional line does not consist of permanently installed bolts, but of removable protective devices such as

* Spring loaded camming device
* aluminum or steel nuts
* hexagonal-shaped chocks
* Tricams

Carabiners and slings are then used to connect the protection gear to the climber's lead rope, so that in the event of a fall, the rope can be used (by the belayer below) to 'catch' the falling climber. Modern traditional climbs very rarely have placed bolts, except in the case of difficult lines that lack the features necessary to place adequate removable gear. It is also considered extremely bad style to install new protection bolts on existing climbs that can be completed without them.

Commonly used Knots

A number of knots are required for traditional climbing, to create anchors, to tie in the climbers and even to be used during the climb.

* Figure 8 is commonly used to tie in the climbers at both ends.
* Inline Figure 8 is mostly used for anchors.
* Clove Hitch is sometimes used to make a climber safe quickly at a belay ledge
* Alpine Butterfly can be used to tie a climber into the middle of a rope.
* Munter Hitch is commonly used to belay without a belay device
* Slip Knot can be used during a climb to sling a protrusion of rock known as a chickenhead

Anchors

When a climber has reached the top of a climb an anchor must be set up to allow the leader to bring up the seconder safely. An anchor has a number of different components which should be put together in a redundant way to make the anchors safe.

* Protection - An anchor typically consists of 4 pieces of protection with the minimum being 2 pieces.
* Cordelletes/Web-o-lettes/Rope - These are used to tie the pieces of protection of the anchor together using

the above mentioned knots

* Carabiners - Are used to connect the pieces of protection to the rope and also to attach the belay device and lead climber to the anchor.

Bailing

In some cases a traditional climb may be to difficult or time may be running out before it gets dark so the lead climber decides to bail off the climb and descend to the ground before reaching the top. To do this an anchor is created mid climb and protection is left on the rock after the climbers abseil back down to the ground.

An example of how a Traditional Climb is performed
* Leader places gear on his/her harness
* Leader ties into the rope using a Figure 8 knot.
* Seconder ties into the other end of the rope.
* Seconder puts the leader on belay using a belay device or munter hitch.
* Leader climbs up and places the first piece of protection. The first piece of protection should be directional, which means that it should not be able to be pulled out if it moves up or down.
* Leader uses a quick draw or extended draw to connect the first piece to the rope.
* Leader climbs upwards and places the second piece of protection and repeats until the top of the climb.
* Leader creates an anchor and clips into using a screw gate carabiner to become safe.
* Seconder takes leader off belay
* Leader pulls up all the rope until there is no slack between the leader and seconder.
* Leader puts seconder on belay
* Seconder climbs up and removes the protection the leader has placed on the way up.

Types of Rock

A number of types of rock are climbed on each with a varying degree of suitability for traditional climbing. Some examples are Sandstone, Granite and Limestone.

Ethics of Traditional Climbing

While it may be more dangerous than sports climbing traditional climbing leaves little or no trace of climbing, which preserves the natural environment of the cliff face.

By leaving the ethics of traditional climbing; the original ethics, sports climbers divided the climbing community.

Lead climbing

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Lead climbing is a climbing technique used to ascend a route. This technique is predominantly used in rock climbing and involves a lead climber attaching themselves to a length of dynamic (stretchy) climbing rope and ascending a route whilst periodically attaching protection to the face of the route and "clipping in" to it. The lead climber must have another person acting as a belayer. The belayer has multiple roles: holding the rope in the event of a fall, and paying out or taking up rope as the climber moves.

As lead climbing does not require a pre-placed anchor at the top of the route, it is often seen as less restricted than top roping. Also, because a lead climber does not have an anchor point above them whilst climbing, only the limbs and body of the climber are used to effect upward progress. Protective devices are only placed to catch the climber in the event of a fall.

Lead climbing is an advanced technique, and is rarely practiced by novice climbers.

Lead climbing basics

When lead climbing, the lead climber or leader wears a harness tied to one end of a rope. The leader's partner provides the belay, paying out rope as needed, but ready to hold the rope tightly, usually with the aid of a belay device, to catch the leader in the event of a fall. The lead climber ascends the route, periodically placing protection for safety in the event of a fall. The protection can consist of pre-placed bolts and pitons, to which the climber clips quickdraws, or removable protection such as nuts and spring loaded camming devices which are carefully secured by the climber into cracks or other features. Distances between pieces of protection can range from three to forty feet or more, although most often the distance is between six and twelve feet.

At any point, the leader can fall at least twice as far as the distance to the most recently placed protection. If a leader is ten feet above the last piece of protection, a fall will be a minimum of twenty feet. Realistically, the fall would likely include several more feet due to rope elasticity and slack and give in the overall mechanical system. Any time a lead climber approaches twice the height of the last piece of protection, there is danger of a ground fall in which the falling climber hits the ground before the rope goes tight. In such a case, the rope does no good at all. The severity of a fall which is arrested by the climbing rope is measured by the fall factor: the ratio of the distance fallen to the amount of rope between the climber and the belayer. A fall of 20 feet is much more severe (exerts more force on the climber and climbing equipment) if it occurs with 10 feet of rope out (i.e. the climber has placed no protection and falls from 10 feet above the belayer to 10 feet below--a factor 2 fall) than if it occurs 100 feet above the belayer (a fall factor of 0.2), in which case the stretch of the rope more effectively cushions the fall.

Once the leader reaches a suitable spot for anchoring, or runs out of protection (hopefully the former), two things can occur:

1. The climber is lowered to the ground by the belayer or rappels to the ground, removing the pieces of protection on the way down. This is common when sport climbing or climbing short routes.
2. The leader belays the lower climber (the former belayer) up to the anchors. On the way up, the climber cleans (removes) the protection placed by the leader. This is common when climbing multi-pitch routes, where this process is repeated once for each pitch.

Sport climbing generally uses pre-placed protection, while removable protection is more commonly used when traditional climbing. However, it is not uncommon to see routes with both types of protection present when lead climbing.

Lead climbing is done for several reasons. Often, placing a top-rope is not an option because the anchors are not accessible by any means other than climbing. Sport climbing and traditional climbing both utilize lead climbing techniques for practical reasons, as well as stylistic reasons. Climbers may work individual pitches on top-rope, but valid ascents require the climber to lead the pitch.

Aid climbing

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Aid climbing is a style of climbing in which fixed or placed protection is used to make upward progress. In the Yosemite Decimal System used in the US, it is sometimes called "6th class" climbing.

The term contrasts with free climbing in which no artificial aids are used to make progress. In aid climbing, the climber ascends by hanging on, and climbing on, his or her equipment; in free climbing the climber ascends by holding onto, and stepping on, natural features of the rock, using rope and equipment only to catch them in case of a fall, and to hang on at belay stations. In general, aid climbing places less emphasis on athletic fitness and physical strength but more on technical skill, though the physical aspects of hard aid climbing should not be underestimated. Aid techniques are most often utilized on extremely steep and long routes, demanding great endurance and stamina, both physical and mental.

Technique

In a typical ascent with aid the climber places pieces of equipment ("protection") in cracks or other natural features of the rock, then clips an aider (a ladder-like device, also called stirrup or étrier) to the protection, stands up on the aider, and repeats the process. Just as in free climbing, the usual technique involves two climbers, a leader and a belayer. The leader is connected by a rope to the belayer, who remains at one spot (the "belay station") while the leader moves up. As the leader advances, the rope is let out by the belayer, and clipped by the leader into the pieces of protection as they are placed. If the leader falls, the belayer locks off the rope and, assuming the protection doesn't rip out, catches the leader's fall on the rope. When the leader, moving up, reaches the end of the rope, or a convenient stopping point, he or she builds an anchor, hangs on it, and fixes the rope to it. This then becomes the next belay station. The belayer then ascends the fixed rope using mechanical ascenders, retrieving the protection that was placed by the leader. Meanwhile, the leader sets up a hauling system and, using another rope brought up for that purpose, hauls up a bag (the "haul bag" or "pig") containing the climbers' food, water, hammocks or "Porta-ledge", sleeping bags, and so on. Many variations on this basic technique are possible, including solo aid climbing and climbing with a team of three.

Until the 1940s the only protection was the piton, driven into a crack in the rock with a hammer. Today, aid climbing uses a considerably larger array of hardware than the pitons used by the first climbers although the primary technique of ascension has not much evolved. The typical gear of an aid climber includes pitons, hooks, copperheads, nuts, camming devices, ascenders, hauling pulleys, aiders, daisy chains and wall hammers. The invention of camming devices or "friends" and other non-damaging rock gear has resulted in the practice of clean aid, where nothing is hammered, a great bonus for popular routes which could be disfigured from continual hammering.

The hardest aid routes are poorly protected and the climber must make long sequences of moves using hooks or tenuous placements. On these routes, a climber may have to commit to moving up onto the most marginal of placements. For example, if a copperhead is pounded into a shallow crease in a rock, and if it rips, the climber is in for a wild ride, as a whole string of tenuous pieces rip out one by one.

Free climbing

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Free climbing is a type of rock climbing, in which the climber uses no artificial aids to make upwards progress. In this way, the climber will use only hands, feet and other parts of the body. Ropes and protective equipment are used only for protection against the consequences of a fall. The term is used in contrast to aid climbing, a much less prevalent practice in which equipment is used directly (i.e. pulled or stood on) in order to make progress.

Styles of free climbing include traditional climbing, sport climbing, free soloing and bouldering.

The term free climbing is commonly confused with free soloing by non-climbers. This is a type of free climbing where no rope or protective equipment is used for protection, and a fall would clearly be disastrous. In contrast, the vast majority of free climbers will make use of such equipment as a safeguard when climbing at height.

Free climbing "guidelines" from a U.S. perspective (Stonemaster's, et al.): the adventure of exploring the unknown, living on the cutting edge of the possible and the impossible, and striving to go one better. In light of those ideals, the climbing community espoused a goal of avoiding behavior that sullies (makes less challenging in any way beyond personal improvement) a climbing route.

Rules

The goal is to climb the route first try on-sight as if the rope (if one is being used) is not there. Therefore, true free climbing prohibits:

* Pre-climb inspections to learn more about the climb before starting (however one should always perform a safety inspection on any face that they are about to climb)
* Hangdogging (resting on gear or the rope)
* Pre-placing gear (pinkpointing)
* Pulling or stepping on gear (french free)
* Prior top roping of the lead climb (most common in trad climbing, frequently termed 'headpointing')
* Practice through falling (i.e. failing) on previous lead attempts (most common in sport climbing, frequently termed 'redpointing')

Although an on-sight attempt is the most coveted, in practice all of the above tactics are common practice to greater or lesser extent. This is especially the case in sport climbing. Ordinarily, the traditional climber will only resort to aid as a last resort, in order to complete a hard climb. The aid climber strives to free climb as much of the route as possible.

Types of rock climbing

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Rock climbing may be divided into two broad categories: free climbing and aid climbing.

* Free climbing requires the climber use only his/her bodily strength for upward progress. Commonly confused with "free-soloing" which means to climb without a rope. The essence of free climbing is that, although gear may be used to protect a climber in the event of a fall, the actual "climbing" is being done without the help of any artificial device.

* Aid climbing involves using artificial devices placed in the rock to support all or part of the climber's body weight, and is normally practiced on rock formations that lack the necessary natural features suitable for free climbing.

Other kinds of climbing:

* Lead climbing is a method of climbing in which the climber (here called the "leader") climbs a route from the ground up. To protect him/herself, the climber trails a rope which is managed by a belayer who remains on the ground or at an established anchor. As the leader climbs, he/she can either clip the trailed rope through pieces of traditional gear (cams, stoppers), placed in cracks, or clip the rope through gear already in place (bolts, pitons). If a climber falls while leading, he/she cannot comfortably sit back on the rope and be held by the belayer as in toproping (where the rope is anchored above the climber); rather, the leader will fall twice the distance between his/her position and the most recent piece of protection (a cam, stopper, bolt, etc.) that he/she clipped the rope through (assuming this piece of protection holds).
* Traditional Climbing, or "Trad" Climbing. In Trad Climbing, the leader uses mostly removable gear (and the occasional bolt placed on lead) to protect against falls. As in all forms of lead climbing, the climbing team (a leader and follower, or multiple followers) begins at the bottom of a climb and ascends to the top, the leader placing protective devices in the rock as he/she climbs. Once the leader is finished climbing, he/she establishes a belay. The follower then "follows" the route and removes all of the gear placed by the leader. It is important that the leader be proficient at placing Trad (or clean) gear (cams, stoppers, hexes, tri-cams, etc.) because his/her safety depends upon the soundness of each individual gear placement. Placing trad gear on lead can be time-consuming and thus tiring, sometimes making routes feel harder than their rating. Trad climbing is generally practiced according to ethical principles, that dictate only natural gear placements be made. These same ethical principles have driven many to put their lives in danger rather than place a bolt. If the climbers are exceptionally traditional, the leader will immediately lower to the ground or anchor after a fall (rather than continuing on from where he/she is hanging). It is, with perhaps the exception of Free-soloing, the purest form of climbing. A true traditional ascent will leave no trace of its passage.
* Sport Climbing is a type of lead climbing which involves the use of pre-placed permanent bolts for protection. This frees the leader from the need to carry and place traditional gear. The leader merely clips one side of a quickdraw (two carabiners connected by a loop of webbing) into a bolt and the other into the rope. A typical sport route will require the leader to carry between 6 and 12 quickdraws or "draws," one for each bolt in the string of bolts that protect the route. Sport Climbing, in essence, is focused more on the gymnastic aspects of climbing than the aesthetics or adventure. Sport routes are bolted with safety in mind and also because they generally (though not always) ascend faces that are not protectable by any other practical mean. Bolts, however, are not foolproof. The same stringence concerning safety found in Trad. climbing should apply to Sport climbing as well. In the case of a fall, sport climbers often rest on the rope and begin from where they are hanging, called "hang-dogging." Hard sport climbs often require that the climber literally rehearse every single move several times before he/she can complete a clean ascent (without falls).
* Top Roping involves suspending a rope from an anchor located at the top of a short climb. The climber ties into one end of the rope and is belayed by his belayer who manages the other end of the rope. The belayer can belay either from the top or base of the route. This is distinct from Lead climbing where the climber is not safeguarded by a rope attached to an anchor situated at the top of the route.
* Bouldering may be described as climbing short, severe routes on boulders or small outcrops. While safety ropes from above are occasionally used, most boulderers feel that the most ethical form of protection is a bouldering mat or pad similar to those used by gymnasts. In addition, other climbers standing on the ground may "spot" the boulderer, to help safely guide his or her fall.
* Indoor climbing is a form of climbing that can involve bouldering, top roping, and leading in an indoor environment on wood or plastic holds. For most it will be the easiest way to begin the sport.
* Free solo climbing: Usually describes free climbing without a rope or other protective gear. Free solo climbing is distinguished from solo climbing where a climber progressing alone uses a rope and protection devices including a self belay system.

Rock climbing basics

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Climbers usually work in pairs. One climber climbs and the other belaying. In lead climbing, the belayer feeds rope to the lead climber through a belay device. The leader climbs, occasionally placing protection or clipping preplaced bolted hangers, until the top is reached. The belayer is ready to "lock off" the rope in case the leader falls.

Both climber and belayer attach the rope to their climbing harness. The rope is tied into the climber's harness with a Figure-of-eight loop or double bowline knot. The leader either places his own protection (Traditional climbing) or clips into permanent protection already attached to the rock (Sport climbing). In traditional climbing, the protection is removable. Usually nuts or Spring-loaded camming device (often referred to as "cams" or "friends") are set in cracks in the rock (although pitons are sometimes used). In sport climbing the protection is metal loops called bolts. Bolts are secured to the rock with either expanding masonry bolts taken from the construction industry, or by placing glue-in bolt systems. In ice climbing the protection is made-up of Ice Screws or similar devices hammered or screwed into the ice by the leader, and removed by the second climber.

The lead climber typically connects the rope to the protection with carabiners or quickdraws. If the lead climber falls, he will fall twice the length of the rope from the last protection point, plus rope stretch (typically 5% to 8% of the rope out), plus slack. If any of the gear breaks or pulls out of the rock or if the belayer fails to lock off the belay device immediately, the fall will be significantly longer. Thus if a climber is 2 meters above the last protection he will fall 2 meters to the protection, 2 meters below the protection, plus slack and rope stretch, for a total fall of over 4 meters.

If the leader falls, the belayer must arrest the rope to stop the fall. To achieved this the rope is run through a belay device attached to the belayer's harness. The belay device runs the rope through a series of sharp curves that, when operated properly, greatly increases friction and stops the rope from running. Some of the more popular types of belay devices are the ATC Belay Device, the Figure 8 and various auto-locking belay devices such as the Petzl Gri-Gri

If the route being climbed is a multi-pitch route the leader sets up a secure anchor system at the top of the pitch, also called a belay, from where he can belay as his partner climbs. As the second climber climbs, he/she removes the gear from the rock in case of traditional climbing or removes the quickdraws from the bolts in the case of sport climbing. Both climbers are now at the top of the pitch with all their equipment. Note that the second climber is protected from above while climbing, but the lead climber is not, so being the lead climber is more challenging and dangerous. After completing the climb, and with both climbers at the top of the pitch, both climbers must rappel or descend the climb in order to return to their starting point. All climbs do not necessarily require the lead climber to belay the second climber from the top. The belayer could lower the lead climber down after he/she has completed a single pitch route.

Occasionally, climbers may decide to "move together", a risky but speedy technique also called simul-climbing, in which both leader and second move at the same time without stopping to belay. The leader - approximately a rope length above the second - usually places multiple pieces of protection as he climbs so that the weight of the second climber might arrest a possible leader's fall. Should the second climber to fall, however, the leader may be pulled from his holds, with potentially dangerous results.

Rock climbing

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Rock climbing, broadly speaking, is the act of ascending steep rock formations. Normally, climbers use gear and safety equipment specifically designed for the purpose. Strength, endurance, and mental control, as well as agility and balance, are required to cope with tough, dangerous physical challenges. Knowledge of climbing techniques and the use of essential pieces of gear and equipment are crucial.

History

Although the practice of rock climbing was an important component of Victorian mountaineering in the Alps, it is generally thought that the sport of rock climbing began in the last quarter of the nineteenth century in various parts of Europe. Rock climbing evolved gradually from an alpine necessity to an athletic sport in its own right. As rock climbing matured, grading systems were created in order to more accurately compare the relative difficulties between climbs. Over the years, both climbing techniques and the equipment climbers use to advance the sport have steadily evolved.