Buck Short Revolution Folding Knife | Mountaineering or Climbing

Buck produced this climber’s knife in collaboration with mountaineer Peter Whittaker. The 436DPL Short Revolution overcomes some of the weaknesses of the usual lockblade folder and keeps the important perks.

The 2.7 ounce knife opens to a full length of 6 5/8″ with a platinum anodized aircraft aluminum handle big enough to grip like a full sized knife. The 2 1/2″ stainless steel blade comes with a combo serrated edge, the most efficient for working with rope. Closed, the nearly full length tang doubles as a strong carabiner, allowing the knife to be securely fastened to a wide range of gear. Opening the knife rotates the tang into the handle, giving this folding knife strength that most folders lack.

Instead of calling it a folder, the maker describes this knife as a rotating fixed blade knife that uses the handle as a sheath. Maybe it’s not quite a fixed blade knife in terms of strength, but it’s a step up from the usual lock blade folder design and way ahead of the other folding carabiner styles.

One handed opening is obviously an important feature if you expect to be hanging out in the high country. Before you buy this lifetime warranted knife, however, consider a light fixed blade sheath knife that’s already open and won’t ice itself shut.

Clean climbing

Clean climbing is a style of rock climbing that avoids damage to the rock by eschewing the drilling of bolts and the hammering of pitons. The style became practical with the invention of clean protection: nuts in the 1930s and spring loaded camming devices in the 1970s. The 1970s also saw the introduction of the Leave No Trace concept, which, among similar ethics for other outdoor activities, stipulates that climbers should follow these clean climbing notions.

Clean climbing is the preferred style of climbing in most parts of the United Kingdom where it is more commonly known as traditional climbing (trad); British climbers tolerate bolts and pitons on only a few cliffs. In other parts of the world it co-exists with sport climbing.

Clean climbers can carry and place protection by hand, removing them just as easily and cleanly.

Pitons and bolts are rarely used (almost exclusively in aid climbing) due to the damage they cause to the rock. This ethic has evolved such that on most modern climbs, any bolts and pitons installed are left in place (known as "fixed") for all future parties to use, in order to prevent multiple damaging placements.

Clean climbing differs from Sport Climbing, a popular form of climbing in many parts of Europe and the United States (as well as other countries), in that protection for Sport Climbing is provided entirely by fixed bolts, and clean gear is rarely used. Sport Climbing typically involves shorter routes (usually 100' in height or less) focusing on overhung, strenuous movements, and does not require the considerable skill of placing and removing clean protective gear.

Some routes are partially bolt protected and partially gear protected. These are most commonly referred to as "mixed protection" routes.

The debate between Traditional, or Trad Climbers, and Sport Climbers continues to this day over what the acceptable usage of bolts for protection is. Most Traditional climbers believe that bolts should not be used on any route where clean protection is possible, in order to preserve the rock. Some sport climbers believe that all routes should be bolted completely so that gear placement skills are not necessary to attempt the climb.

The general ethic is very dependent upon the area in question and varies widely by region. Generally speaking, the traditional ethic holds in most areas, and bolts are not used for protection unless there is no other option.

Left to traditional clean climbers, major UK climbing areas—Malham Cove, for example—could have been climbed and still remain clear of expansion bolts. Despite this, bolting was permitted by the BMC on this Site of Special Scientific Interest

campus board

A campus board is a training tool that has been widely adopted to improve rock climbing performance. Typically, a user ascends or decends the campus board using only their hands. Campus boards can take a variety of different forms and may incorporate a variety of materials. As one example, a campus board may comprise horizontal thin slats or rails of wood attached to an inclined board in a ladderlike configuration. However, some implementations may utilize bolt on climbing holds or sections of pipe. A campus board is generally set at overhanging angle of inclination that is between vertical and 20 degrees. One consideration for selecting the angle of inclination is the avoidance of any interference that may result between the user's legs and the campus board or wall.

The campus board was invented by Wolfgang Güllich in 1988 while he was training for a new route, Action Directe, which required extreme dynamic finger strength. The first campus board was hung at a university in a gym called The Campus Centre. Hence the term "campus" has been applied to the name of the training board, training method, and style of climbing, or "campusing" in which only the user's hands and arms are used.

There are a variety of training approaches that may be used with a campus board. As one example, a user may alternate the use of specific fingers to increase finger strength when ascending or descending the board. As another example, upper-body strength may be increased by utilizing large lunges between specific rails or holds of the campus board. Reactive training may be used to increase muscle recruitment by dynamically moving between the campus board rails simultaneously with both hands. Training on a campus board may result in better performance due to the improvement of motor training, increased finger strength on a variety grips, and greater power and lock-off strength of the arms. However, it should be appreciated that many top climbers do not utilize campus board training, nor does campus board training necessarily translate directly to improved performance on the rock.

In general, campus board training should only be attempted by climbers who already have a threshold level of strength, as the physical intensity of campusing can easily result in injury. While there is no right time to begin a campus board training regime, some have followed a general approach which requires the user to first be capable of bouldering at least V5, or climb at least French 6c

Boulder

In geology, a boulder is a rock with grain size of usually no less than 256 mm (10 inches) diameter. While a boulder may be small enough to move or roll manually, others are extremely massive. In common usage, a boulder is too large for a person to move. Smaller boulders are usually just called rocks or stones. The word boulder comes from Middle English "bulder" which was probably of Scandinavian origin such as dialectal Swedish "bullersten" meaning "noisy stone" (Imagine a large stone in a stream, causing water to roar around it) from "bullra" (to roar, cf. Dutch "bulderen", with the same meaning) and "sten" (stone).

In places covered by ice sheets during Ice Ages, such as Scandinavia, northern North America, and Russia, ice has moved and formed granite boulders, also named glacial erratics. One of the largest is used as the pedestal of the Bronze Horseman in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

Some noted rock formations involve giant boulders exposed by erosion, such as the Devil's Marbles in Australia's Northern Territory, the Wairere Boulders in New Zealand, where an entire valley contains only boulders, and The Baths on the island of Virgin Gorda in the British Virgin Islands.

The climbing of large boulders often requires developing special abilities, and has given rise, since the late 19th century, to the sport of bouldering.

Blue ice (glacial)

Blue ice occurs when snow falls on a glacier, is compressed, and becomes part of a glacier that winds its way toward a body of water (river, lake, ocean, etc.). During its travels, all of the air bubbles that are trapped in the ice are squeezed out, and the size of the ice crystals increases, making it clear.

In some areas, earthquakes have raised the blue ice above the ground and created formations much like large frozen waves.

The blue color is often wrongly attributed to Rayleigh scattering. Rather, the ice is blue for the same reason water is blue: it is a result of an overtone of a OH molecular stretch in the water which absorbs light at the red end of the visible spectrum.

Runways

Blue ice is exposed in areas of Antarctic where there is no net addition or subtraction of snow. That is, any snow that falls in that area is counteracted by sublimation or other losses. These areas have been used as runways due to their hard ice surface which is suitable for aircraft fitted with wheels rather than skis.

Action Directe (climb)

Action Directe is a famously difficult sport climb in the Frankenjura, Germany.

It has been climbed by ten people.

The first ascent (FA) was by Wolfgang Güllich in 1991, who climbed the route using a 16 move sequence. Simpson and Koyamada used a different sequence with only 11 moves.

The repeat ascents were by:

* Alexander Adler on 9 September 1995.
* Iker Pou on 7 June 2000.
* Dave Graham on 21 May 2001.
* Christian Bindhammer on 14 May 2003.
* Rich Simpson on 13 October 2005.
* Dai Koyamada on 15 October 2005.
* Markus Bock on 22 October 2005.
* Kilian Fischhuber on 25 September 2006.
* Adam Ondra on 19 May 2008.
* Patxi Usobiaga on 24 October 2008.

Despite being generally recognized as the world's first 9a, Güllich actually gave the route a UIAA grade of XI, which corresponds to 8c+/5.14c.

It was the first recognised route of the grade, and is considered by many to be something of a benchmark for the grade. It is also famous for its style, involving long dynamic moves off single-finger pockets. Wolfgang Güllich invented the campus board to train the very specific technique needed for this route.

Black ice

Black ice is ice frozen without many air bubbles trapped inside, making it transparent. Black ice takes the color of the material it lies on top of, often wet asphalt or a darkened pond. Its difficult-to-detect nature makes it a significant hazard to drivers, pedestrians, and sailors.
On Roads

Black ice, also known as "glare ice" or "clear ice," typically refers to a thin coating of glazed ice on a surface, often a roadway. While not truly black, it is transparent, allowing the usually-black asphalt/macadam roadway to be seen through it, hence the term. It is unusually slick compared to other forms of roadway ice.

Because it contains relatively little entrapped air in the form of bubbles, black ice is transparent and thus very difficult to see (as compared to snow, frozen slush). In addition, it often is interleaved with wet road, which is identical in appearance. For this reason it is especially hazardous when driving or walking because it is both hard to see and unexpectedly slick.

Bridges and overpasses can be especially dangerous. Black ice forms first on bridges and overpasses because air can circulate both above and below the surface of the elevated roadway, causing the pavement temperature to drop more rapidly. This is often indicated with "Bridge May Be Icy" warning signs.

Black ice may form even when the ambient temperature is several degrees above the NTP freezing point of water (0°C) if the air warms suddenly after a prolonged cold spell that leaves the surface of the roadway well below the freezing point temperature.


The term black ice is sometimes used to describe any type of ice that forms on roadways, even when standing water on roads turns to ice as the temperature falls below freezing. However, this use of the term black ice is not included in the American Meteorological Society Glossary of Meteorology.

A similar hazardous condition can also occur when diesel fuel spills onto a road surface because the lighter fractions evaporate quickly to leave a greasy slick which is difficult for oncoming drivers to spot in time to prevent skidding.
Ice skating

In New England, "black ice" refers to a clear type of pond ice that forms in very cold weather. Black ice has the appearance of thick, slightly cracked glass laid on the water, and its transparency reveals the darkness of the pond beneath: hence the name. Black ice is very hard and smooth, making gliding easier, but stopping slower and more difficult.

Thin, clear ice also has acoustic properties which are useful to tour skaters. Skating on clear ice radiates a tone whose frequency depends on the thickness of the ice.

Maritime black ice

Black ice is a danger for cold-weather fishing trawlers. As ice forms on its superstructure, a boat can become top heavy, and in rough weather this unbalanced extra weight may capsize it. Thick layers of black ice can form rapidly on boats where they encounter a combination of air temperatures cold enough to freeze seawater and rough seas that splash seawater over the entire boat.

Climbing command

A climbing command is a short standard phrase used in climbing to ensure the smooth operation of the climbing system. Standard commands make it possible for climbers to work safely with each other, and for commands to be unambiguously understood when the wind is noisy.

Starting a climb

* "On belay" or "Climber ready" (US) or "Ready to climb" (UK): the climber wants to know if he is being belayed.
* "Belay on" (US) or "Climb when ready" (UK): the belayer is ready
* "Climbing": the climber beginning his/her ascent
* "Climb on" or "Climb away" (US) or "OK" (UK): acknowledgement of "Climbing!"

During a climb

* "Tension", "Up rope", "Take" (US) or "Take in" (UK): remove the slack in the rope between the belayer and the climber
* "Slack", "Down rope", "Give" (US) or "Give out" (UK): add more slack in the rope between the belayer and the climber.
* "Watch me!": climber is about to start a difficult section, and wants the belayer to pay extra attention.
* "Falling!": climber is falling or about to fall.

Ending a climb

* "Falling" (US) : when ready to descend.
* "Fall on" or "Fall away" (US) : the belayer's response to indicate he or she is ready.
* "Off Belay" (US) or "Safe" (UK): the climber has made a safe stance; the belayer can take a rest.
* "Dirt me" (US slang) or "Lower me" (US, UK): the belayer can start lowering off the climber.
* "Got me?": warning signal for the belayer to expect some weight on the rope

Other commands

* "Clipping" and "Clipped": An indication that the climber is placing/has placed protection or is attaching/has attached the rope to a bolt.
* "Rope" (US) or "Rope below" (UK): warning signal that the rope will hit the ground seconds after this is heard
* "Rock" (US) or "Below" (UK): warning signal of dislodged rock or dropped equipment falling down.
* "That's me!": an indication to a belayer that all the slack has been taken in and the belayer is now tugging on the actual climber

Arête

An arête is a thin, almost knife-like, ridge of rock which is typically formed when two glaciers erode parallel U-shaped valleys. The arête is a thin ridge of rock that is left separating the two valleys. Arêtes can also form when two glacial cirques erode headwards towards one another, although frequently this results in a saddle-shaped pass, called a col. The edge is then sharpened by freeze-thaw weathering. The word "arête" is actually French for fishbone; similar features in the Alps are described with the German equivalent term Grat or Kamm (comb).

Where three or more cirques meet, a pyramidal peak is created.

Cleaver

A cleaver is a type of arête that separates a unified flow of glacial ice from its uphill side into two glaciers flanking, and flowing parallel to, the ridge. Cleaver gets its name from the way it resembles a meat cleaver slicing meat into two parts. A cleaver may be thought of as analogous to an island in a river. A common situation has the two flanking glaciers melting to their respective ends before their courses can bring them back together; the exceedingly rare analogy is a situation of the two branches of a river drying up, before the downstream tip of the island, by evaporation or absorption into the ground.

The location of a cleaver is often an important factor in the choice among routes for glacier flow. For example, following a cleaver up or down a mountain may avoid travelling on or under an unstable glacial, snow, or rock area. This is usually the case on those summer routes to the summit whose lower portions are on the south face of Mount Rainier: climbers traverse the "flats" of Ingraham Glacier, but ascend Disappointment Cleaver and follow its ridgeline rather than ascending the headwall either of that glacier or (on the other side of the cleaver) of Emmons Glacier.

Examples

Notable examples of arêtes include:

* Knife Edge, on Mount Katahdin, Maine
* Clouds Rest, in the Sierra Nevada, California
* The Minarets, in the Sierra Nevada, California
* The Garden Wall, in Glacier National Park, Montana
* Crib Goch, in Snowdonia National Park, Wales
* Striding Edge in the English Lake District
* The Catwalk, in the Olympic National Park, state of Washington

Anchor (climbing)

In rock climbing, an anchor can be any way of attaching the climber, the rope, or a load to rock, ice, steep dirt, or a building by either permanent or temporary means. The goal of an anchor depends on the type of climbing under consideration but usually consists of stopping a fall, or holding a static load.

Types of anchors

Depending on the material being climbed, there are many types of protection that can be used to construct the anchor, including natural protection such as boulders and trees, or artificial protection such as cams, nuts, bolts or pitons.

Natural anchor

A natural anchor is one that does not require man-made climbing gear. Such anchors may consist of trees, chockstones already lodged in a crack, horns and protrusions, etc.

Artificial anchor

An artificial anchor consists of man-made climbing gear placed in the rock. Such gear may be spring loaded camming devices, aluminum chockstones, steel expansion bolts, pitons, etc.

Belay anchor

A belay anchor is used as a sole attachment to the cliff face, to support a belay or toprope. It should ideally be essentially foolproof, consisting of multiple redundant components (natural and/or artificial), none of which are likely to fail, and none of which in the event of failure would cause the entire anchor to fail. Any one component of a good anchor should be able to support the entire system by itself.

Running belay anchor

A running belay anchor is used as a safeguard in the event of a fall while lead climbing. Often hastily placed in the stress of the moment, these anchors are not as secure, or bombproof as belay anchors and cannot be relied on as sole attachment points to the rock. Running belay anchors must be backed up by other running belay anchors below should they fail.

Ice anchors

The ice picket is used as an anchor in mountaineering. It is driven into the snow and used to arrest falls.


Attachment to the anchor

Indirect

When the rope goes from the climber to the belayer. Most often used under controlled circumstances at climbing walls or when the climber doesn't have the weight advantage on the belayer during bottom roped climbs. It is impossible to escape from the system.

Semi-direct

When the rope comes from the climber to the belayer, but the belayer is attached separately to an anchor. Often used when multi pitching and the belayer is on a stance. Or when top roping and it is possible that if the climber falls the belayer will be pulled from the stance above the climber. The belayer can, with a little effort then remove themselves from the system if required. it is essential that the belayer is attached to the anchor via the belay loop at the front of the harness. Attaching the belayers harness to the anchor via the back of the harness can cause the harness, when placed under strain constrict inwards elongating front to back, rather than side to side. This can result in crushed pelvis' and serious harm to the belayer.

Direct

When the rope comes from the climber to an anchor. A hanging belay device may be used, although it is common in this instance to just use an Italian hitch. The belayer is totally free of the system.


Equalization

Anchor equalization is the process of combining two or more anchors in the build of a single equalized anchor. This is the method used in a redundant belay anchor, as mentioned above. If assembled correctly, the load can be distributed amongst the individual anchors, rather than placing all the load on a single anchor point. This decreases the chance that any of the anchor points will fail, and, if a point does fail, the other(s) should still be able to hold.

When forming an equalized anchor, it is important to take into consideration the angle formed between the two pieces of protection -- the "V-angle". One must try to minimize this angle as much as possible, because the greater the V-angle, the more force will be placed on each piece of protection. As shown below, if the V-angle is greater than 120 degrees, the load on each anchor comprising the equalized anchor will actually be greater than the load on the rope connected to the equalized anchor. This is a hazardous situation which makes it worse to use equalization than not at all, and should be avoided.

If the load force (To load in the image at right) is FLoad and the V-angle is θV, then the force on each anchor is given by:

Resulting from this expression, we can deduce:

* At a V-angle of 30 degrees, each of the two anchors bear a force of about 52% of the original load.
* At 45 degrees, each anchor bears about 54% of the load.
* At 60 degrees, each anchor bears about 58% of the load.
* At 90 degrees, each anchor bears about 71% of the load.
* At 120 degrees, each anchor bears a force equivalent to 100% of the original load. An angle this large should never be used.

Alpine style

Alpine style refers to mountaineering in a self-sufficient manner, thereby carrying all of one's food, shelter, equipment etc. as one climbs, as opposed to expedition style (or siege style) mountaineering which involves setting up a fixed line of stocked camps on the mountain which can be accessed at one's leisure. Additionally, alpine style means the refusal of fixed ropes, high altitude porters and the use of supplemental oxygen.

Many consider Alpine style to be the purest form of mountaineering, setting a standard to which all mountaineers should aspire. This style became well-known and popular with Reinhold Messner, when he and Peter Habeler climbed Gasherbrum I without oxygen equipment in 1975. It was Hermann Buhl's idea to demonstrate Alpine style in the Karakoram at the successful Austrian Broad Peak expedition in 1957; in pure Alpine style the members of this expedition later climbed Skil Brum (Marcus Schmuck and Fritz Wintersteller) and approached Chogolisa (Hermann Buhl and Kurt Diemberger).

The benefits of alpine style are that, generally, much less time is spent on the route, reducing objective dangers such as avalanches or blizzards. This can be a major factor on routes with ice fields full of blocks of ice hundreds of feet tall which could fall at any time. Snow and ice conditions often change over the course of a day forcing climbing parties to climb in the early hours before the sun melts the snow or ice making it unsuitable and more susceptible to avalanche. This tendency to climb in the morning has led to the term "Alpine Start". An "Alpine Start" is a start that happens in the early morning ranging from 11:00 PM on long routes to not long before sunrise for shorter routes or faster parties. An "Alpine Start" must begin in the dark.

The problems encountered while alpine style climbing are related to lack of support. Without fixed ropes to retreat down in case of emergency, or a lower camp to return to, the commitment of alpine style is greater than expedition style in terms of the choice to ascend or descend. A climbing group caught at a point where conditions do not allow further ascent must consider other options such as an unplanned bivouac (perhaps without the appropriate gear), rappels (leaving multiple pieces of protection behind), or moving to another route from their current position (perhaps without adequate knowledge of the alternative route). However, alpine style often is cheaper and faster for those on a budget.

Mountain hut

A Mountain hut (also known as alpine hut, mountain shelter, and mountain hostel) is a building located in the mountains intended to provide food and shelter to mountaineers, climbers and hikers. Mountain huts are usually operated by a section of an Alpine Club. Most mountain huts are tended to by Alpine Club personnel throughout the mountaineering season, who prepare meals and drinks for mountaineers, similar to a restaurant, but usually with a limited selection, as it is not always easy to transport the food to the hut. Furthermore, mountain huts provide simple sleeping berths. Any mountaineer is allowed to access Alpine huts, but members of an Alpine Club usually get a discount. Some huts in more remote areas have no personnel, but mountaineers are allowed to access them.

As there is a lot of mountaineering activity in the Alps, there is a large number of huts along the mountaineering paths. One cannot necessarily count on finding a similarly dense network of paths and huts in other mountain ranges.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland the tradition is of unwardened "climbing huts" providing fairly rudimentary accommodation (but superior to that of a bothy) close to a climbing ground; the huts are usually conversions (eg of former quarrymen's cottages, or of disused mine buildings), and are not open to passers-by except in emergency. Many climbing clubs in the UK have such huts in Snowdonia or in the Lake District. A well-known example is the 'Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut' (the 'CIC Hut') under the northern crags of Ben Nevis in Scotland - this is a purpose-built hut, high up the mountain, probably nearest in character to the Alpine huts.

Altitude sickness

Altitude sickness, also known as acute mountain sickness (AMS), altitude illness, or soroche, is a pathological condition that is caused by acute exposure to low air pressure (usually outdoors at high altitudes). It commonly occurs above 2,400 metres (approximately 8,000 feet). Acute mountain sickness can progress to high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE).

The cause of altitude sickness is still not understood. It occurs in low atmospheric pressure conditions but not necessarily in low oxygen conditions at sea level pressure. Although treatable to some extent by the administration of oxygen, most of the symptoms do not appear to be caused by low oxygen, but rather by the low CO2 levels causing a rise in blood pH, alkalosis. The percentage of oxygen in air remains essentially constant with altitude at 21 percent, but the air pressure (and therefore the number of oxygen molecules) drops as altitude increases. Altitude sickness usually does not affect persons traveling in aircraft because modern aircraft passenger compartments are pressurized.

A related condition, occurring only after prolonged exposure to high altitude, is chronic mountain sickness, also known as Monge's disease.

An unrelated condition, although often confused with altitude sickness, is dehydration, due to the higher rate of water vapor lost from the lungs at higher altitudes.

Introduction

High altitude or mountain sickness is defined when someone feels sick at high altitudes, such as in the mountains or any other altitude-related sicknesses. It is hard to determine who will be affected by altitude-sickness as there are no specific factors that compare with this susceptibility to altitude sickness. However, most people can climb up to 2500 meters (8000 feet) normally.

Generally, different people have different susceptibilities to altitude sickness. For some otherwise healthy people, Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) can begin to appear at around 2000 meters (6,500 feet) above sea level, such as at many mountain ski resorts, equivalent to a pressure of 80 kPa. AMS is the most frequent type of altitude sickness encountered. Symptoms often manifest themselves 6-10 hours after ascent and generally subside in 1 to 2 days, but they occasionally develop into the more serious conditions. Symptoms include headache, fatigue, stomach illness, dizziness, and sleep disturbance. Exertion aggravates the symptoms.

High altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and cerebral edema (HACE) are the most ominous of these symptoms, while AMS, retinal hemorrhage, and peripheral edema are less severe forms of the disease. The rate of ascent, altitude attained, amount of physical activity at high altitude, as well as individual susceptibility, are contributing factors to the onset and severity of high-altitude illness.

Altitude sickness usually occurs following a rapid ascent and can usually be prevented by ascending slowly. In most of these cases, the symptoms are temporary and usually abate as altitude acclimatisation occurs. However, in extreme cases, altitude sickness can be fatal.

The word "soroche" came from South America and originally meant "ore", because of an old, incorrect belief that it was caused by toxic emanations of ores in the Andes mountains.

Signs and symptoms

Headache is a primary symptom used to diagnose altitude sickness, although headache is also a symptom of dehydration. A headache occurring at an altitude above 2,400 meters (8000 feet = 76 kPa), combined with any one or more of the following symptoms, can indicate altitude sickness:

* Lack of appetite, nausea, or vomiting
* Fatigue or weakness
* Dizziness or light-headedness
* Insomnia
* Pins and needles
* Shortness of breath upon exertion
* Persistent rapid pulse
* Drowsiness
* General malaise
* Peripheral edema (swelling of hands, feet, and face).

Symptoms that may indicate life-threatening altitude sickness include:

* pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs):-
o persistent dry cough
o fever
o shortness of breath even when resting
* cerebral edema (swelling of the brain):-
o headache that does not respond to analgesics
o unsteady gait
o increased vomiting
o gradual loss of consciousness.

Severe cases

The most serious symptoms of altitude sickness are due to edema (fluid accumulation in the tissues of the body). At very high altitude, humans can get either high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), or high altitude cerebral edema (HACE). The physiological cause of altitude-induced edema is not conclusively established. It is currently believed, however, that HACE is caused by local vasodilation of cerebral blood vessels in response to hypoxia, resulting in greater blood flow and, consequently, greater capillary pressures. On the other hand, HAPE may be due to general vasoconstriction in the pulmonary circulation (normally a response to regional ventilation-perfusion mismatches) which, with constant or increased cardiac output, also leads to increases in capillary pressures. For those suffering HACE, dexamethasone may provide temporary relief from symptoms in order to keep descending under their own power.

HAPE occurs in ~2% of those who are adjusting to altitudes of ~3000 m (10,000 feet = 70 kPa) or more. It can progress rapidly and is often fatal. Symptoms include fatigue, severe dyspnea at rest, and cough that is initially dry but may progress to produce pink, frothy sputum. Descent to lower altitudes alleviates the symptoms of HAPE.

HACE is a life threatening condition that can lead to coma or death. It occurs in about 1% of people adjusting to altitudes above ~2700 m (9,000 feet = 73 kPa). Symptoms include headache, fatigue, visual impairment, bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, loss of coordination, paralysis on one side of the body, and confusion. Descent to lower altitudes may save those afflicted with HACE.

PREVENTION

Avoiding alcohol ingestion

As alcohol tends to dehydrate, avoidance in the first 24 hours at a higher altitude is optimal.

Strenous activity

People with recurrent AMS note that by avoiding strenuous activity such as skiing, hiking, etc in the first 24 hours at altitude reduces their problems.

Altitude acclimatization

Altitude acclimatisation is the process of adjusting to decreasing oxygen levels at higher elevations, in order to avoid altitude sickness. Once above approximately 3,000 meters (10,000 feet = 70 kPa), most climbers and high altitude trekkers follow the "golden rule" - climb high, sleep low. For high altitude climbers, a typical acclimatization regime might be to stay a few days at a base camp, climb up to a higher camp (slowly), then return to base camp. A subsequent climb to the higher camp would then include an overnight stay. This process is then repeated a few times, each time extending the time spent at higher altitudes to let the body adjust to the oxygen level there, a process that involves the production of additional red blood cells. Once the climber has acclimatised to a given altitude, the process is repeated with camps placed at progressively higher elevations. The general rule of thumb is to not ascend more than 300 metres (1,000 feet) per day to sleep. That is, one can climb from 3,000 (10,000 feet = 70 kPa) to 4,500 metres (15,000 feet = 58 kPa) in one day, but one should then descend back to 3,300 metres (11,000 feet = 67.5 kPa) to sleep. This process cannot safely be rushed, and this explains why climbers need to spend days (or even weeks at times) acclimatising before attempting to climb a high peak. Simulated altitude equipment that produce hypoxic (reduced oxygen) air can be used to acclimate to altitude, reducing the total time required on the mountain itself.

Altitude Acclimatization is necessary for some people who rapidly move from lower altitudes to more moderate altitudes, usually by aircraft and ground transportation over a few hours, such as from sea level to 7000 feet of many Colorado, USA mountain resorts. Stopping at an intermediate altitude overnight can reduce or eliminate a repeat episode of AMS.

Drugs

Acetazolamide may help some people to speed up the acclimatisation process when taken before arriving at altitude, and can treat mild cases of altitude sickness. A typical dose is 250mg twice daily starting the day before moving to altitude.

A single randomized controlled trial found that sumatriptan may help prevent altitude sickness.

For centuries, indigenous cultures of the Altiplano, such as the Aymaras, have used coca leaves to treat mild altitude sickness.

Oxygen enrichment

In high-altitude conditions, oxygen enrichment can counteract the effects of altitude sickness, or hypoxia. A small amount of supplemental oxygen reduces the equivalent altitude in climate-controlled rooms. At 3,400 m (67 kPa), raising the oxygen concentration level by 5 percent via an oxygen concentrator and an existing ventilation system provides an effective altitude of 3,000 m (70 kPa), which is more tolerable for surface-dwellers. The most effective source of supplemental oxygen at high altitude are oxygen concentrators that use vacuum swing adsorption (VSA) technology. As opposed to generators that use pressure swing adsorption (PSA), VSA technology does not suffer from performance degradation at increased altitude. The lower air density actually facilitates the vacuum step process.

Other methods

Drinking plenty of water will also help in acclimatisation to replace the fluids lost through heavier breathing in the thin, dry air found at altitude, although consuming excessive quantities ("over-hydration") has no benefits and may lead to hyponatremia.

Oxygen from gas bottles or liquid containers can be applied directly via a nasal cannula or mask. Oxygen concentrators based upon PSA, VSA, or VPSA can be used to generate the oxygen if electricity is available. Stationary oxygen concentrators typically use PSA technology, which has performance degradations at the lower barometric pressures at high altitudes. One way to compensate for the performance degradation is to utilize a concentrator with more flow capacity. There are also portable oxygen concentrators that can be used on vehicle DC power or on internal batteries, and at least one system commercially available measures and compensates for the altitude effect on its performance up to 4,000 meters (13,123 feet). The application of high-purity oxygen from one of these methods increases the partial pressure of oxygen by raising the FIO2 (fraction of inspired oxygen).

Treatment

The only reliable treatment and in many cases the only option available is to descend. Attempts to treat or stabilise the patient in situ at altitude is dangerous unless highly controlled and with good medical facilities. However, the following treatments have been used when the patient's location and circumstances permit:

* Oxygen may be used for mild to moderate AMS below 12,000 feet and is commonly provided by physicians at mountain resorts. Symptoms abate in 12-36 hours without the need to descend.
* For more serious cases of AMS, or where rapid descent is impractical, a Gamow bag, a portable plastic pressure bag inflated with a foot pump, can be used to reduce the effective altitude by as much as 1,500 meters (5,000 feet). A Gamow bag is generally used only as an aid to evacuate severe AMS patients not to treat them at altitude.
* Acetazolamide may assist in altitude aclimatisation but is not a reliable treatment for established cases of even mild altitude sickness.
* Some claim that mild altitude sickness can be controlled by consciously taking 10-12 large, rapid breaths every 5 minutes, (hyperventilation) but this claim lacks both empirical evidence and a plausible medical reason as to why this should be effective. If overdone, this can remove too much carbon dioxide causing hypocapnia.
* The folk remedy for altitude sickness in Ecuador , Peru and Bolivia is a tea made from the coca plant. See mate de coca.
* Other treatments include injectable steroids to reduce pulmonary edema, this may buy time to descend but treats a symptom, it does not treat the underlying AMS.

Alpine butterfly knot

The Butterfly Loop, also known as the Lineman's Loop or alpine butterfly loop, is a "non-jamming loop on the bight": a loop which may be tied in a rope with two fixed ends, and can take loads on both ends of the original rope, and on the loop. The alpine butterfly loop is a symmetrical and more secure version of the butterfly loop.

Usage

The Butterfly Loop has a high breaking strength and is regarded by mountaineers as one of the strongest knots to attach climbers to the middle of a rope, such that they have room to move around even when the main rope goes tight, and they can be supported in either direction from the main rope. The loop is typically attached to a climbing harness by carabiner.

It can also be used to isolate a worn section of rope, where the knot is tied such that the worn section is used for the centre of the loop (which of course does not receive a carabiner or bears any loads in this case).

Advantages

* Does not reduce the strength of the rope by very much
* Will not slip (after initial settling)
* Allows for the knot to be loaded three ways (each end of the main line and by the loop)
* Relatively easy to undo after loading (more difficult if wet)
* Very easy to adjust the size of the bight

Disadvantages

* Difficult to tie one-handed
* Difficult to casually inspect
* Requires some training/practice to master

Single Rope Technique

Single Rope Technique (SRT) is a set of methods used to descend and ascend ropes. SRT is used in caving, potholing, rock climbing, rope rescue, roped access for building maintenance and by arborists for tree climbing.

American caver Bill Cuddington, known as "Vertical Bill", developed the SRT in the late 1950s, thus earning him the additional moniker of "father of vertical caving". The name, however, was coined by Bruce Bedford as editor of Descent magazine.

.....Technique.....

Ascent

For ascent (prusiking or "jugging"), cammed devices (ascenders) are used that can be pushed up the rope but that lock and hold the user's weight when a downward force is applied; these must also be easily removable from the rope without being detached from the user. Knots such as the Prusik, Bachmann and Klemheist are used to ascend ropes in emergencies in climbing and mountaineering; they have ceased to be the primary ascent method in SRT because they are slow in use, and ice or mud greatly reduce their efficacy.

Numerous prusik systems have been devised. Popular systems are:

* Sit-stand systems (also known as frog rig) - One ascender is at chest level attached to the sit-harness, and a second is held in the hand with a long loop of rope for the feet. Movement up the rope is by repeated moving of the foot-loop ascender up the rope, pushing up with both feet together, and sitting, supported by the chest ascender. This motion appears like a frog kick.
* Rope-walking systems - One ascender attached directly to one foot, and the second connected to the other foot by a rope with the ascender higher up to avoid clashing. Movement up the rope is by alternate stepping movements with the feet.

In general, while rope-walking techniques may be very effective for climbing long unobstructed pitches, they prove less versatile in cases of awkward passages and complex rope rigging with rebelays used to avoid hazards such as loose rocks, waterfalls, and rope damage from rub points.

Sit-stand systems are almost universally favored in Europe due to the conditions and the tradition of rigging to avoid rub points which allows for lighter weight ropes.

Many cavers in the southeastern USA favor rope-walking systems due to the enormous pitches, and have traditionally used simple rope rigging, with the rope anchored only at the top of the pitch and touching the rocks all the way down. This is sometimes pejoratively called Indestructible Rope Technique.

Descent

Descent (abseiling or rappeling) uses various forms of friction brake to control speed. The most commonly used are the Petzl Stop (self-locking) and Bobbin, and rappel racks. For safe SRT, especially on drops with complex rigging with intermediate belays, it is essential that the abseiling device can be removed from the rope without being unclipped from the harness.

Equipment

Modern SRT uses specialised devices for both descent and ascent, and low-stretch kernmantel rope of 8 mm-11 mm diameter.

Other essential items of a personal SRT set are a sit harness and one or more safety cords ("cows-tails") terminated in carabiners, for temporary attachment to safety ropes at the heads of drops and used in manoeuvres at intermediate rope belays.

Abseiling

Abseiling (German: abseilen, "to rope down"), rappelling in American English, is the controlled descent down a rope in rock climbing, mountaineering, caving, and canyoneering; the technique is used when a cliff or slope is too steep and/or dangerous to descend without protection. Abseiling is used chiefly in British English, while other Anglophone countries use different terms.

Slang terms

Slang terms for the technique include: rapping or rap jumping (American slang), abbing (British slang for "abseiling"), jumping (Australian slang), roping down, roping, seiling (Australian slang), snapling (Israeli slang), rappling (Hindi slang).

History

The origin of the abseil is attributed[2] to Jean Estéril Charlet, a Chamonix guide who lived from 1840-1925. Charlet originally devised the technique of the abseil (or rappel) method of roping down during a failed solo attempt of Petit Dru in 1876. After many attempts, some of them solo, he managed to summit the Petit Dru in 1879 in the company of two other Chamonix guides, Prosper Payot and Frédéric Folliguet, whom he hired (a rather paradoxical move for a guide). During that ascent, Charlet perfected the abseil.

Equipment

* Helmets are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. A light source may be mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free in unlit areas.
* Gloves protect hands from the rope and from hits with the wall. They are mainly used by recreational abseilers, industrial access practitioners, adventure racers and military as opposed to climbers or mountaineers. In fact, they can increase the risk of accident by becoming caught in the descender in certain situations.
* Boots or other sturdy footwear with good grips.
* Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular in some applications for the protection of joints during crawls or hits.
* Ropes used for descending are typically of Kernmantle rope construction, with a multi-strand core protected by an abrasion-resistant woven sheath. For most applications, low-stretch rope (typically ~2% stretch when under the load of a typical bodyweight) called static rope is used to reduce bouncing and to allow easier ascending of the rope.
* A harness is used around the waist to secure the descender. A comfortable harness is important for descents that may take many hours.
* A descender or rappel device is a friction device or friction hitch that allows for rope to be paid out in a controlled fashion, under load, with a minimal effort by the person controlling it. The speed at which the rappeller descends is controlled by applying greater or lesser force on the rope below the device or altering the angle at which the rope exits the device. Descenders can be task-designed or improvised from other equipment:
o Mechanical descenders include braking bars, the figure eight, the abseil rack, the "bobbin" (and its self-locking variant the "stop"), the gold tail, and the "sky genie" used by some window-washers and wildfire firefighters.
o Some improvised descenders include the Munter hitch, a carabiner wrap, the basic crossed-carabiner brake and the piton bar brake (sometimes called the carabiner and piton). There is an older, more uncomfortable, method of wrapping the rope around one's body for friction, as in the Dulfersitz or Geneva methods used by climbers in the 1960s.

Application

Abseiling is used in a number of applications, including:

* Rock climbers returning to the base of a climb or to a point where they then try a new route.
* Recreational abseilers, who return to the top of the line by track, stairs or other methods and abseil again.
* Recreational canyoners, who travel down mountainous watercourses where waterfalls or cliffs may need to be descended and simply jumping is too dangerous or impossible.
* Recreational caving, where underground pitches are accessed using this method (Single Rope Technique).
* Adventure racers, whose events often including abseiling and other rope work.
* Industrial/Commercial workers, who use abseiling techniques to access parts of structures or buildings so as to perform maintenance, cleaning or construction. (eg window cleaners, railway scalers, quarry workers, etc.)
* Access to wildfires or wilderness rescue/paramedic operations by rapelling from a hovering helicopter.
* Confined spaces access, such as investigating ballast tanks and other areas of ships.
* Rescue applications, such as accessing injured people or accident sites (vehicle or aircraft) and extracting the casualty using abseiling techniques.
* Steeplejacking, as a replacement for bosun's chair.
* Military and police applications, such as entering a building through a window or hard to reach spaces via aircraft. This is a technique used by special forces and SWAT teams.

Abseiling can be a dangerous sport, and presents risks, especially to unsupervised or inexperienced climbers. Abseiling is, in fact, viewed by climbers as being more dangerous than climbing itself, as the rope system is taking the weight of the practitioner constantly rather than only in the event of a fall. Moreover, a high percentage of mishaps classified as "climbing accidents" actually occur when abseiling.

Abseiling is prohibited or discouraged in some areas, due to the potential for rock erosion and/or conflict with climbers heading upwards.

Backpacking (wilderness)

Backpacking (US; tramping, trekking, or bushwalking in other countries) combines hiking and camping in a single trip. A backpacker hikes into the backcountry to spend one or more nights there, and carries supplies and equipment to satisfy sleeping and eating needs.
Definition
A backpacker packs all of his or her gear into a backpack. This gear must include food, water, and shelter, or the means to obtain them, but very little else, and often in a more compact and simpler form than one would use for stationary camping. A backpacking trip must include at least one overnight stay in the wilderness (otherwise it is a day hike). Many backpacking trips last just a weekend (one or two nights), but long-distance expeditions may last weeks or months, sometimes aided by planned food and supply drops.

Backpacking camps are more spartan than ordinary camps. In areas that experience a regular traffic of backpackers, a hike-in camp might have a fire ring and a small wooden bulletin board with a map and some warning or information signs. Many hike-in camps are no more than level patches of ground without scrub or underbrush. In very remote areas, established camps do not exist at all, and travelers must choose appropriate camps themselves.

In some places, backpackers have access to lodging that are more substantial than a tent. In the more remote parts of Great Britain, bothies exist to provide simple (free) accommodation for backpackers. Another example is the High Sierra Camps in Yosemite National Park. Mountain huts provide similar accommodation in other countries, so being a member of a mountain hut organization is advantageous (perhaps required) to make use of their facilities. On other trails (e.g. the Appalachian Trail) there are somewhat more established shelters of a sort that offer a place for weary hikers to spend the night without needing to set up a tent.

Most backpackers purposely try to avoid impacting on the land through which they travel. This includes following established trails as much as possible, not removing anything, and not leaving residue in the backcountry. The Leave No Trace movement offers a set of guidelines for low-impact backpacking ("Leave nothing but footprints. Take nothing but photos. Kill nothing but time. Keep nothing but memories").
Professional backpacking
For some people, backpacking is a necessary and integral part of their job.

In the US military a framed backpack is referred to as a "rucksack" or simply a "ruck". Soldiers who serve in the militaries of most nation-states usually receive at least some rudimentary backpacking training while infantrymen are often trained to a more advanced backpacking skill level. They share many common attributes with amateur backpackers: being self-contained, use of land-navigation skills and actively minimizing their environmental foot-print. There are, however, a few differences -- such as the need to carry weapons, ammunition, and communication equipment, and sometimes the need to maintain "noise and light discipline", which means remaining silent and in darkness to avoid detection.

Other professional backpackers may be scientific and academic researchers, professional guides, photographers, park-rangers and "search & rescue" personnel.
Motivation
People are drawn to backpacking primarily for recreation, to explore places that they consider beautiful and fascinating, many of which cannot be accessed in any other way. A backpacker can travel deeper into remote areas, away from people and their effects, than a day-hiker can. However, backpacking presents more advantages besides distance of travel. Many weekend trips cover routes that could be hiked in a single day, but people choose to backpack them anyway, for the experience of staying overnight.

These possibilities come with disadvantages. The weight of a pack, laden with supplies and gear, forces backpackers to travel more slowly than day-hikers would, and it can become a nuisance and a distraction from enjoying the scenery. In addition, camp chores (such as pitching camp, breaking camp, and cooking) can easily consume several hours every day. However, with practice, much of this "0 time" can be purged from the day.

Backpackers face many risks, including adverse weather, difficult terrain, treacherous river crossings, and hungry or unpredictable animals (although the perceived danger from wild animals usually greatly exceeds the true risk). They are subject to illnesses, which run the gamut from simple dehydration to heat exhaustion, hypothermia, altitude sickness, and physical injury. The remoteness of backpacking locations exacerbates any mishap. However, these hazards do not deter backpackers who are properly prepared. Some simply accept danger as a risk that they must endure if they want to backpack; for others, the potential dangers actually enhance the allure of the wilderness.
Equipment
Almost all backpackers seek to minimize the weight and bulk of gear carried. A lighter pack causes less fatigue, injury and soreness, and allows the backpacker to travel longer distances. Every piece of equipment is evaluated for a balance of utility versus weight. Significant reductions in weight can usually be achieved with little sacrifice in equipment utility, though very lightweight equipment is usually significantly more costly.

A large industry has developed to provide lightweight gear and food for backpackers. The gear includes the backpacks themselves, as well as ordinary camping equipment modified to reduce the weight, by either reducing the size, reducing the durability, or using lighter materials such as special plastics, alloys of aluminium, titanium, composite materials, impregnated fabrics and carbon fiber. Designers of portable stoves and tents have been particularly ingenious. Homemade gear is common too, such as the beverage-can stove.

Some backpackers use lighter and more compact gear than do others. The most radical measures taken in this regard are sometimes called ultralight backpacking.

Due to the emphasis on weight reduction, a practical joke common in some circles is to secretly pack a small but relatively heavy luxury item, such as a soft drink, into another backpacker's pack. Then, once the group stops for a rest, the perpetrator retrieves the item, thanks the bearer for carrying it, and consumes it.
Water

Backpackers often carry some water from the trailhead, to drink while walking. For short trips, they may carry enough to last the whole trip, but for long trips this is not practical. A backpacker needs anywhere from 2 to 8 L (roughly 1/2 to 2 gallons) or more per day, depending on conditions, making a water supply for more than a few days prohibitively heavy.

Backpackers may carry one to four litres of water, depending on conditions and availability. Although some backpacking camps in heavily-used areas provide potable water, it must usually be obtained from lakes and streams.

According to health and medical experts, untreated water found in backcountry settings in the U.S. and Canada is generally quite safe to drink. [1] Yet despite this, many backpackers believe that drinking and cooking water nearly always needs treatment with a filter or chemical tablets to protect against bacteria and protozoa (see Potability of backcountry water and Portable water purification).

If water is unavailable, or if the only water available is irreparably filthy, backpackers may need to carry large amounts of water for long distances.

Water may be stored in bottles or in soft, collapsible hydration packs (bladders). Some backpackers store water in ordinary plastic beverage bottles, while others use special Lexan bottles or metal canteens. For accessibility they may be carried by a shoulder strap or attached to the outside of a pack. Bladders are typically made of plastic, rubber, and/or fabric. They are light, easily stored and collapsible. They may be equipped with drinking hoses for easy access while hiking. In spite of this convenience, bladders are more prone to leaking than bottles, particularly at the hose connections. Hoses also allow the hiker to lose track of the water supply in the bladder and to deplete it prematurely.

Food (for more, click here)

Some backpackers enjoy cooking elaborate meals with fresh ingredients, particularly on short trips, and others carry the gear and take the time to catch fish or hunt small game for food. However, especially for long expeditions, most backpackers' food criteria are roughly the same: high energy content (particularly protein), with long shelf life and low mass and volume. An additional concern is weight; while Dutch oven and campfire cookery are historically popular, small liquid-fuel campstoves and ultralight cooking pots made of aluminum or titanium are more common in modern usage due to weight limitations and fire restrictions in many locales.

Ordinary household foods used on backpacking trips include cheese, bread, sausage, fruit, peanut butter, and pasta. Popular snack foods include trail mix, easily prepared at home; convenient and nutritious energy bars, chocolate, and other forms of candy, which provide quick energy and flavor. Traditional outdoor food includes dried foodstuffs such as jerky or pemmican, and also products like oatmeal (which can also be consumed raw in emergency situations).

Most backpackers avoid canned food, except for meats or small delicacies. Metal cans and their contents are usually heavy, and, like all trash, the empties must be carried back out.

For dinners, many hikers use specially manufactured, pre-cooked food that can be eaten hot. It is often sold in large, stiff bags that double as eating vessels. One common variety of special backpacking food is freeze-dried food, which can be quickly reconstituted by adding hot water. One can also purchase a commercial food dehydrator which removes the majority of water from a pre-cooked meal. To eat, water is mixed in with the meal several hours before eating and allowed to rehydrate before heating. Some various distributors of this are Backpackers Pantry and Mountain Outfitters. Another kind of special backpacking food is UHT-packaged without dehydration, and can be reheated with a special, water-activated chemical heater. This technology originated with the U.S. military's Meal Ready-to-Eat ("MRE"), but is now produced also for the commercial market. The small chemical heater obviates the need for a portable stove and fuel, however the added weight of the MRE's and their packaging reduce the weight advantage. MRE's can be useful to backpackers for several reasons:

* They do not need to be rehydrated or heated which is useful in areas where flame is not allowed, and water is scarce (Most of Australia)
* They are very durably packaged
* A single MRE contains a full meal complete with snack and desert
* They offer a great deal of variety in each meal, including condiments
* They are individually packaged inside the "brown plastic wrapper", so you can place individual components in various pockets and "eat on the move".

As more and more "big box" retail stores carry pre-packaged dehydrated foods (such as Mountain House Brand) however, it is becoming increasingly easier to buy packaged meals retail versus mail order, whereas MRE's are rarely carried in retail stores.

There is a genre of cookbooks specializing in trailside food and the special challenges inherent in backcountry cooking. Most such cookbooks espouse one of two philosophies; the first, generally used on short trips, involves planning out meals and preparing many ingredients in one's home kitchen before departure. The second method, bulk rationing, simply supplies the hiker with ingredients, allowing on-trail cooking with minimal prior planning, and is sometimes used for extended outings. A third form of the genre deals in Dutch oven cookery, which has considerable historical cachet (especially in countries such as the United States with a long pioneer tradition), but is dependent on suitable locations for a campfire.

Winter backpacking
Although backpacking in the winter is rewarding, it can be dangerous and generally requires more gear. Backpackers may need skis or snowshoes to traverse deep snow, or crampons to cross ice in colder climates. Cotton clothing, which absorbs moisture and chills the body, is particularly dangerous in cold weather, so backpackers stick to synthetic materials or materials that won't hold moisture. Special low-temperature sleeping bags and tents can be expensive, but will be more comfortable than many layers of warm clothing. However when hiking in cold weather it is always better to hike with varying layers of clothing so that as the body heats up layers can be taken off without causing the wearer to sweat or become very chilled.

Skills and safety

* Survival skills are handy for peace of mind: In case the weather, terrain or environment is more challenging than prepared for, or for dealing with shortcomings in
* Navigation and orienteering are useful to find the trailhead, then find and follow a route to a desired sequence of destinations, and then an exit. In case of disorientation, orienteering skills are important to determine where you are and formulate a route to somewhere more desirable. At their most basic, navigation skills allow you to choose the correct sequence of trails to follow.
* First Aid: effectively dealing with minor injuries (splinters, punctures, sprains) is considered by many a fundamental backcountry skill. More subtle, but maybe even more important, is recognizing and promptly treating hypothermia, heat stroke, dehydration and hypoxia, as these are rarely encountered in daily life.
* Leave No Trace is the backpacker's version of the golden rule: To have beautiful and pristine places to enjoy, help make them. At a minimum, don't make them worse.
* Distress signaling is a skill of last resort.

Outdoor cooking

Outdoor cooking differs substantially from kitchen-based cooking, the most obvious difference being lack of an easily defined kitchen area. As a result, campers and backpackers have developed a significant body of techniques and specialized equipment for preparing food in outdoors environments. Such techniques have traditionally been associated with nomadic cultures such as the Berbers of North Africa and the Plains Indians and pioneers of North America, and have been carried down to and refined in modern times for use during recreational outdoors pursuits.

Currently, much of the work of maintaining and developing outdoor cooking traditions in Westernized countries is done by the Scouting movement and by wilderness educators such as the National Outdoor Leadership School and Outward Bound, as well as by writers and cooks closely associated with the outdoors community.

Food and recipes

The type of food common in outdoors settings is somewhat different from what is normally available in a kitchen, and also differs depending on the type of activity the cook is engaging in. While someone at a public campground may have easy access to a grocery store and be able to prepare plenty of recipes with fresh meat and vegetables, someone on an extended trip into the backcountry will not be able to carry large amounts of fresh food due to water content, and will have to rely heavily on dried meats, vegetables, and starches such as ramen, polenta, and dried potato flakes. Wilderness experts in both categories sometimes make use of locally available wild foods as well, particularly wild vegetables and fruit but also occasionally fresh fish and wild game; however, it is not unusual for camping food, especially backcountry food, to be partially or totally vegetarian.

Camping food is often very high in fat and carbohydrates to provide energy for long hikes, and hikers (much like soldiers) must rely heavily on energy-packed snacks such as trail mix, chocolate, energy bars, and even synthetics such as sports drinks. Water can also be at a premium, so important parts of a camper's pantry include chlorine or iodine-based water disinfectants as well as drink mixes to mask the flavor of the chemical treatment.

Recipes are often designed with significant planning and home preparation in mind, with certain ingredients mixed at home and then cooked on the trail; to that end, there are a number of providers of freeze-dried food, both ingredients and full meals, to the outdoors market, and just-add-water instant meals (including hot cereals, pasta or rice in sauce, and instant soup) from the supermarket are popular as well. Alternately, some wilderness experts advocate bulk rationing, in which each hiker is given a selection of raw ingredients and prepares a meal from scratch on the trail.

Methods

Direct heat

The most traditional method for outdoor cooking (and indeed the oldest known form of cooking to humanity) is by means of a campfire. Campfires can be used for cooking food by a number of techniques. The techniques for cooking on a campfire are no different from those used for everyday cooking before the invention of stoves or where stoves are still not available. Individuals who are backpacking in an area that allows the gathering of firewood may decide to cook on a campfire to avoid the need to carry extra equipment; however, most campfire cooking is done in front-country campgrounds. Cooking food using a campfire can be tricky for those not accustomed to it; also, due to risk of fire damage, campfires are illegal in many areas, so many campers prefer to use a portable stove instead.

Roasting

Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is popular for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. Besides skewers, pie irons too may be used (small iron molds with long handles), into which can be placed slices of bread with some form of filling — which are placed over hot coals to cook. When using meat, roasting can have the advantage over grilling in that the grease that drips from the food can be reused. This can be done by placing a fireproof container under the food.

Grilling

Grills are also simpler to use and they tend to make the food pick up flavors from the smoke. Grills over a campfire are used in the same way as ordinary charcoal barbecues. If the food is simply placed on the grill, it may catch fire so it requires constant attention. Handleheld grills that clamp over the food may be used for various tasks like warming food, grilling burgers or sausages or making toast. In cases where open fires are not allowed, lightweight charcoal grills (sometimes considered a type of hibachi) are sometimes used for direct grilling of food.

Frying

Frying is not always necessary, but is often used for fish or wild game caught while on the trip, as well as certain kinds of bread and desserts made on the trail. Camp frying pans often lack handles for easy packing, with the camp cook using a clamp-like device to pick up and move the pan. As a general rule, the frying medium used in camp cooking is usually either vegetable oil or margarine, since most animal fats such as butter or lard are not sufficiently shelf-stable for camp use.

Camp frying pans are generally made out of very thin metal (though some campers do use cast iron pans for this purpose as well), so extra care must be taken to evenly cook the food, especially over the small-diameter flame of a portable stove. A "round the clock" technique, where the frying pan is moved repeatedly to expose different parts of its base to the flame, is the most commonly recommended solution to the problem, though it is also possible to use a flame diffuser to achieve the same effect. For campfire use, on the other hand, some camp cooks prefer a legged cast-iron pan called a "spider", which is elevated to allow a small fire directly beneath it.

An improvised griddle can be made by putting a flat stone directly on the fire (or above it, on top of other stones). Food is then placed on the stone.

Boiling

In backpacking particularly, boiling water is the most common kitchen operation undertaken on the trail, used for cooking or reconstituting food, making hot beverages, cleaning up, and even sanitizing drinking water. Portable stoves are therefore generally rated in terms of how quickly they can boil a liter (or other appropriate size) of water; indeed, some commercial stove models are specifically optimized for fast boiling, with other operations such as frying or baking being an afterthought.

Like camp frying pans, camp pots are generally made of very lightweight material (often aluminum or, at a considerable price premium, titanium). Though less of a worry given the thermal mass of water, the camp cook must still take care not to allow food to burn, since the pot itself has very little mass to spread the heat out.

Alternately, a fireproof container (e.g. mess can, bamboo segment or improvised tree bark pot) is placed (or hung) above the fire.

Dutch ovens and other pots

Closely associated with the American Old West, the Dutch oven of tradition is a heavy cast iron or cast aluminum pot, traditionally made with three short legs and a concave cover for holding hot coals on top. While such pots are generally considered too heavy for backpackers, Dutch ovens are often used in group camp-outs and cookouts.

A pot hanging over the fire, although picturesque, may spill, and the rigging may be difficult to construct from found wood. Generally this is done with metal rigging, much of it identical to that historically used in home fireplaces before the invention of stoves. Two vertical iron bars with an iron cross-piece allow pots to be hung at various heights or over different temperatures of fire. Griddles, grills and skewers can also be hung over the fire. When working with wood, one may use two tripods, lashed with tripod lashings, but the rope will be liable to melt or burn. Dovetail joints are more secure, but difficult to carve.

A good alternative to cooking with a tripod is to cook directly upon the fire itself. To do this properly the fire needs to have a reasonable bed of coals and to have burned down to the point where it is not a roaring fire. While the pot may be set directly upon the coals, this is not preferable since that will tend to extinguish the coals. To lift the pot up off the fire, often two small logs of similar size may be used on either side of the pot; camp-style Dutch ovens have three legs built into the pot to perform this function. This allows continued airflow through the fire while providing optimal heat. The one down side to this form of cooking is that the pots will become blackened with soot and ash, which can be difficult to scrub off. The ash and soot build up can be easily avoided by applying a thin layer of dish soap (preferably biodegradable) to the outside of the pot before cooking. The ash and soot will stick to the soap which is then easily rinsed off later.

Steaming

With plants such as bamboo, steaming too is possible. In this method, a piece of bamboo is set diagonally above a fire. The bamboo is perforated from within (between the joints) and water is placed in the lowest bamboo segment. Food (e.g. rice) is then placed in the top segment which is steamed due to the water evaporating (because of the fire) in the lowest segment.

Other covered techniques

The original form of covered cooking is the earth oven, simply a covered pit with a fire built in it, demonstrated in techniques such as the Polynesian umu, the central Asian tandoori, and the Native American clambake.

Another commonly used technique is the baking of food in aluminum foil packets. Food is wrapped inside a durable packet of tin or aluminum foil, crimped to seal, and placed on or under hot coals. Baked potatoes are commonly cooked this way but entire meals can be cooked in one packet. Besides aluminum or tin, organic material (tree leaves) are also frequently employed. Tree leaves such as those from the banana tree do not burn/ignite as they contain enough oil to resist the heat from the flames (at least until the frying is complete). The way to adapt recipes where food is wrapped in foil is to use a barrier such as baking or silicone paper between the food and the foil; the overall technique is similar to the en papillote technique developed in French cuisine, but uses a more robust container.

Other simple methods include clay wrapping food (such as in the kleftiko method used in Greek cuisine), leaf wrapping, and plank grilling, where food is cooked on a wooden plank set vertically next to the fire. Hot-stone cooking, where food is placed on a heated stone next to or even in the fire or where fire-heated stones are dropped into a pot are other methods.

Long-distance truckers, automotive travelers and rally racers have occasionally resorted to cooking on accessible sections of the vehicle engine; the book Manifold Destiny, though written to a certain extent as a humor book, is considered the authoritative reference on the subject. The food is usually wrapped in several layers of aluminum foil and secured onto the engine block or other hot parts of the engine.

In some areas where there is a significant amount of steady, less-hazardous volcanic activity, lava cooking (invented in Hawaii) is sometimes practiced as a novelty.The food does not come in direct contact with the molten rock, instead being wrapped in a moist barrier (usually wet tropical leaves such as banana foliage or ti leaves). The wrapper is sacrificial, and is chipped or otherwise cleaned off along with the cooled lava before serving.

Specialist equipment

Dutch ovens were traditionally specially designed for camping, and such pots (often with legs and a handle, both for suspending the pot over a fire) are still widely available, though sometimes at a premium over flat-bottomed stovetop models. The oven is placed in a bed of hot coals, often from a keyhole fire with additional coals placed on top of the lid, which in camp ovens usually has a raised rim to keep the coals from falling off. Dutch ovens are made of cast iron or aluminum, and are generally not considered suitable for backpacking due to the heavy weight of the pot. Dutch ovens are convenient for cooking dishes that take a long time such as stews, joints of meat and baked goods. They are not the only option for baking on a campout as devices for baking on portable stoves exist and clay ovens can be constructed at longer encampments.

Portable stoves are widely used in areas where fuel such as wood is scarce or there is a significant fire or environmental hazard to building a campfire. Such devices usually use a liquid fuel (usually a petroleum derivative or some kind of alcohol), but gaseous fuels like propane and solid fuels such as wood shavings and hexamine are also used depending on the stove design; while two-burner models are commonly used for front-country campstoves and function much like residential gas stoves, backpacking stoves generally put out a much more concentrated and less powerful flame and require lightweight cooking equipment made of aluminum or titanium rather than more typical kitchen-type utensils.

In addition, there are often special techniques for baked goods made on the trail in the absence of specialized camp oven equipment, including flipping over the (lidded) pan while on the heat and the "twiggy fire", which mimics the use of charcoal on the lid of a Dutch oven using a small campfire on the lid of the pan.

Reflector ovens are placed on the ground next to the fire, and gather thermal radiation from it.

Solar cookers are sometimes used in places where absolutely minimal environmental impact is required.

Dangers

Special precautions are required for camping in bear country because cooking activities and food storage attract these potentially dangerous animals. Food preparation and storage must be located a safe distance from sleeping areas, so a fire near camp cannot be used for cooking. Food needs to be stored in bear cans or bear bags hung from a tree or post. Other animals may be attracted to food too; most notably raccoons, squirrels, skunks, and mice.

Camping

Camping is an outdoor recreational activity.

The participants, known as campers, get away from urban areas, their home region or civilization in general and enjoy nature while spending one or more nights, usually at a campsite. Camping may involve the use of a tent, a primitive structure, or no shelter at all.

Camping as a recreational activity became popular in the early 20th century. Campers frequent national parks, other publicly owned natural areas, and privately owned campgrounds.

Camping is also used as a cheap form of accommodation for people attending large open air events such as sporting meetings and music festivals. Organisers will provide a field and some basic amenities.
Definition

Camping describes a wide range of activities. Survivalist campers set off with little more than their boots, whereas recreational vehicle travelers arrive equipped with their own electricity, heat, and patio furniture. Camping may be an end unto itself, but often it is done in conjunction with other activities, such as hiking, hill walking, climbing, canoeing, mountain biking, swimming, and fishing. It may be combined with hiking either as backpacking or as a series of day hikes from a central location.

Some people vacation in permanent camps with cabins and other facilities (such as hunting camps or children's summer camps), but a stay at such a camp is usually not considered 'camping'. The term camping (or camping out) may also be applied to those who live outdoors out of necessity (as in the case of the homeless) or for people waiting overnight in very long lines (queues). It does not, however, apply to cultures whose technology does not include sophisticated dwellings. Camping may be referred to colloquially as roughing it.
Range of amenities

Campers span a broad range of ability and ruggedness, and campsites are designed accordingly. Many campgrounds have sites with special facilities such as fire rings, barbecue grills, bathrooms and utilities, but not all campsites have similar levels of development. Campsites can range from a patch of dirt with a sign marking it to a level, paved pad with sewer and electricity. For more on facilities, see the campsite article. Rugged campers believe that provisions for comfort detract from the experience of being out-of-doors, but such amenities do avoid some hazards of outdoor activities.

On the side of high amenities is camping in recreational vehicles (RVs), essentially wheeled houses. Many RVs are quite luxurious, featuring air conditioning, bathrooms, kitchens, showers, satellite TV and even Internet connections. RV campers may choose these devices because they consider tent camping uncomfortable and inconvenient. In the United States and Europe, some campgrounds offer hookups where motorhomes are supplied with electricity, water and sewer services. Some retirees and self-employed people sell their homes and live nomadically in their RVs, often moving with the seasons.

Those who seek a rugged experience in the outdoors prefer to camp with only tents, or no shelter at all ("under the stars"). Tent camping commonly employs an automobile to transport equipment to an established campground (this practice is called "car camping"). Other vehicles used for camping include touring bicycles, boats, and even bush planes, although backpacking and using pack animals are popular alternatives. Tent camping attracts young families because the children tend to enjoy it, and because gear is inexpensive and rugged. Tent camping sites often cost less than campsites with full amenities, and most allow direct access by car. Some "walk-in" sites lie a short walk away from the nearest road but do not require full backpacking equipment.
Mobile camping

Backpacking is a very mobile variety of tent camping. Backpackers use lightweight equipment that can be carried long distances on foot. They hike across the land, camping at remote spots, often selecting campsites at will if resource protection rules allow. Backpacking equipment typically costs more than that for car camping, but still far less than a trailer or motorhome, and backpacking campsites are generally cheap.

Canoe camping is similar to backpacking, but uses canoes for transportation; much more weight and bulk can be carried in a canoe or kayak than in a backpack. Canoe camping is common in North America.

One form of bicycle touring combines camping with cycling. The bicycle is used to carry the gear and as the primary means of transportation, allowing greater distances to be covered than backpacking although less capacity for storage.

Motorcycle camping is more comparable to bicycle camping than car camping, due to the limited storage capacity of the motorbike. Motorcycle camping riders, as well as bicycle touring riders, often use some of the same equipment as backpackers, due to the lighter weights and compact dimensions associated with backpacking equipment.
Specialized camping

Survivalist campers learn the skills needed to survive out-of-doors in any situation. This activity may require skills in obtaining food from the wild, emergency medical treatments, orienteering, and pioneering. Wild Camping too, is a growing choice by people seeking the challenge of camping in the wilderness, without campsite amenities. It is a great way of enjoying the solitude and beauty of the wilderness in its most pure form.

"Winter camping" refers to the experience of camping outside during the winter - often when there is snow on the ground. Some campers enjoy the challenge this form of recreation brings. Campers and outdoorspeople have adapted their forms of camping and survival to suit extremely cold nights and limited mobility or evacuation. Methods of survival when winter camping include building snow shelters (quinzhees), dressing in "layers," staying dry, using low-temperature sleeping bags, and fueling the body with appropriate food.

Workamping allows campers to trade their labor for a free campsite, and sometimes for utilities and additional pay.

Adventure Camping is a common form of camping by people who race (possibly adventure racing or mountain biking) during the day, and camp in a minimalist way at night. They might simply use basic items of camping equipment like a micro-camping stove, sleeping bag and Bivouac bag.

Camping is a key part of the program of many youth organizations around the world, such as Scouting. It is used to teach self-reliance and team work.

Camping equipment

Common tent camping equipment includes:

* A tent, lean-to or other shelter device
* A sleeping bag for warmth
* A sleeping pad or air mattress is often placed underneath the sleeping bag for cushioning from stones and twigs as well as for insulation from the ground
* A portable stove to prepare hot meals and/or drinks where campfires are forbidden or impractical
* A lantern or flashlight
* A hatchet, axe or saw for cutting firewood (where allowed; see campfire) or constructing camp gadgets
* Various types and sizes of ropes and tarps for stringing clotheslines, sheltering dining areas, and other purposes.
* A chuck box to hold the many varied camp kitchen items for food preparation, consumption and cleanup.

Some campers may prepare food by cooking on a campfire, sometimes using such equipment as a Dutch oven. If utilizing a campground with electricity an electric frying pan is highly recommended.

Another good recommendation is to bring a bag to place your trash in, one with handles can be tied to a tree limb, or clothesline off the ground.

Much of the remaining needed camping equipment is commonly available in the home, like dishes, pots and pans. Lists of what to take are available in many camping books and websites. Many people opt not to use their home items but equipment better tailored to camping, such as heavy plastic tableware and salt and pepper shakers with tops that close to keep out rain. Backpackers use special lightweight and highly portable equipment.

Social camping

Many campers enjoy socializing with a small group of fellow campers. Such groups will arrange events throughout the year to allow members with similar interests or from similar geographical areas to get together. This allows families to form small close knit societies, and children form lasting friendships. Some who participate in this sort of camping feel that it brings a closer form of bonding, as members become more mutually dependent than they would otherwise be in modern society. There are 2 large organisations in the UK who facilitate this sort of camping: the Caravan Club and the Camping and Caravanning Club. It is also possible to find online special interest groups, who cater for those with a love of a particular pastime or sport.

In more recent years, those who camp alone have been able to share their experiences more easily with a large group of fellow campers, through the use of blogs & online social networking.