Caving equipment and culture

Bulmer Cavern rescue

Because it is always dark underground, one of the most important pieces of caving gear is a light source. Traditionally the main source was a carbide light generator. Calcium carbide was mixed with water to produce acetylene gas. At first the generators were miners' lamps, and the carbide was carried in the cap lamp. These were then replaced by lamps with carbide carried on a waist belt, which were still in widespread use in the 2000s. Increasingly though, carbide lamps are being replaced by headlamps with light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Torches are taken as a back-up.

Cavers wear helmets, polypropylene thermal underwear, overalls, and sturdy boots. They use an abseiling harness in caves with vertical sections, where caving is similar to rock climbing.
Safety

Safety is the caver’s top priority. Being underground, often many hours’ walk from the surface, means that some injuries can become a very real threat to life. Badly injured cavers must be carried out on a stretcher. There are now specialist search and rescue teams, but a vertical section or a tight squeeze can prove a major obstacle.

Cavers have strict safety practices. They always carry three sources of light and a map of the cave. The sport is a team activity and the emphasis is on co-operation. Even so, mishaps do occur – in New Zealand at least four people have died in caving accidents. In 1998 one of the country’s most experienced cavers, Kieran McKay, broke his jaw after falling deep within Bulmer Cavern on Mt Owen. Luckily Bulmer has few crawls and no tight squeezes. A major rescue operation swung into action, involving 80 cavers from around the country. McKay walked out of the final section on his own.
Exploration: maps and dyes

Enthusiasts use topographical maps when looking for new caves. Once these are found, new underground maps are drawn, detailing the structure of caves.

These maps are essential for return trips and those new to caves. They are published as the New Zealand cave atlas, with North Island and South Island editions. As caves are dangerous places for the inexperienced, entrances are not marked on topographical maps.

Dye tests are also valuable. A special green dye called fluorescein is placed in subterranean streams, and suspected springs or resurgences are monitored for traces of the dye. If it shows, this indicates that the stream feeds the spring, helping cavers to link caves with downstream drainages.

Two of the great challenges are to join two known cave systems, and to find more entrances. Sometimes a wind blowing out of the cave mouth is a sign of other entrances.

Trip by trip, tunnels and shafts are followed and surveyed – some with dead ends, others leading to huge caverns and further links.

History

* Marcel Loubens from Pierre St - Martin Cave in the French Pyrenees in 1952. Loebens died from a fatal plunge down the 1,135 foot entrance shaft after a clasp on his harness broke on ascent. Members of Loubens' expedition spent over 24 hours attempting unsuccessfully to haul their friend back to the surface. Despite the efforts of the team doctor, Loubens died 36 hours into his ill-fated rescue attempt. After his passing the remaining members aborted their recovery attempt. Louben's body remained in the cave for two more years before cavers returned him to the surface in 1954. The blood transfusion given to Loubens by the team doctor was likely the first subterranean care of its kind. [4]

* James G. Mitchell from Schroeder's Pants Cave in Manheim, New York in 1965. James Mitchell was a 23-year-old chemist whose death made national headlines in February 1965 when he died of exposure after becoming stranded on rope in a 75 foot pit with a frigid waterfall. Initial efforts to recover Mitchell's body failed. A rescue team was flown from Washington D.C. on Air Force 2. A subsequent three day effort to retrieve Mitchell was aborted after repeated failures and a collapse. The cave was abandoned and blasted shut, essentially making the cave a tomb. Mitchell's death made headlines again forty-one years later when a group returned to the cave and successfully recovered his remains. [5]

* Emily Davis Mobley from Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico in 1991. More than seventy people worked over four days to bring her to the surface after her leg was broken. This was the deepest and most remote cave rescue in American history.

* Floyd Collins from Sand Cave in Kentucky in 1925. Likely the first high profile cave rescue in history. Floyd Collins' desperate situation in the depths of Sand Cave made headlines across America. Over 10,000 spectators flocked to Sand Cave in the week following the news of Floyd's predicament. The National Guard was called in to control the carnival-like atmosphere surrounding the cave. Despite the heroic efforts of volunteers who attempted to dig a parallel shaft to free Collins, he was found dead, buried to his shoulders in debris. One 25 pound rock had lodged Collin's foot preventing his escape. Floyd Collins remained trapped in Sand Cave for another 2 months until a crew of German engineers finished the digging of the shaft and extracted his body.[6]

* Neil Moss in Peak Cavern, England in 1959. Trapped in a narrow tunnel, he was eventually suffocated by carbon dioxide after prolonged efforts to free him. Rescuers were unable to free Moss and eventually the family asked that his body remain in the cave.

* Gerald Moni from McBrides Cave in Alabama in 1997. Moni and his group entered McBrides Cave in flood stage attempting a pull-down trip to the cave's lower entrance. A flash flood caused the situation in the cave to become extremely hazardous. While attempting to negotiate a pit being inundated with a high flow of water, Gerald mistakenly grabbed only one of two ropes necessary to descend the pit. The resultant fall to a ledge part way down the drop resulted in a broken femur. A few members of the group managed to negotiate the lower stream passage before it sumped and reached the surface. The others remained with Moni until local rescue agencies could mobilize and attempt a rescue. Rescue teams spent hours waiting for the water levels in the cave to recede enough to attempt an extraction. When teams finally reached Moni, he had been exposed to frigid water for over 12 hours. Rescue teams risked drowning themselves and Moni while traversing the flooded lower cave. 18 hours after his fall Gerald was returned to the surface alive.

Organized Cave Rescue

Cave Rescue is a highly specialized field of wilderness rescue in which injured, trapped or lost cave explorers are medically treated and extracted from various cave environments.

Cave rescue borrows from elements from firefighting, confined space rescue, rope rescue and mountaineering techniques but has also developed its own special techniques and skills for performing work in conditions that are almost always difficult and demanding. Since cave accidents, on an absolute scale, are a very limited form of incident, and cave rescue is a very specialized skill, normal emergency staff are rarely employed in the underground elements of the rescue. Instead, this is usually undertaken by other experienced cavers who undergo regular training through their organizations and are called up at need.

Cave rescues are slow, deliberate operations that require both a high level of organized teamwork and good communications. The extremes of the cave environment (air temperature, water, vertical depth) dictate every aspect of a cave rescue. Therefore the rescuers must adapt skills and techniques that are as dynamic as the environment they must operate in.

Organized Cave Rescue Units in the United States are generally city/county funded volunteer squads, comprised mainly of seasoned, local cavers. The typical Southeastern U.S. cave rescue team averages between 15 and 20 active members. Due to the excessive amount of manpower required on a large scale cave rescue, it is not uncommon for multiple cave rescue units from various regions to assist another in extensive underground operations. Because organized cave rescue teams are quite rare, it is also quite common for local units to cover regions that extend far beyond their agencies jurisdiction. The number of cave rescues in North America are relatively small compared to other common wilderness rescues. The average number of reported cave related incidents is usually 40 to 50 per year. In most years approximately 10 percent of reported accidents result in death.[1]

In the United States, the leading cave rescue training curriculum is developed and deployed by the National Cave Rescue Commission(NCRC), which operates as part of the National Speleological Society (NSS). The NCRC is not an operational cave rescue unit, but the organization is comprised of members of regional rescue squads.

Outside of the US exists a network of international cave rescue units under the banner of the Union Internationale de Spéléologie (UIS) - Cave Rescue Commission. Most international cave rescue units such as the New South Wales Cave Rescue Squad based in Sydney, Australia are listed with contacts in the event of a cave incident.


In the United States

Organized Cave Rescue Teams generally utilize the Incident Command System. Originally devised for wildland fire teams, today the ICS is used by a variety of agencies throughout North America. The ICS can be modified by each agency depending on the nature of their emergencies. Below is an example of a typical cave rescue Incident Command System.[8]
Members of the Chattanooga/Hamilton County Cave Team haul a patient from the 50 foot deep entrance pit of Pryor Springs Cave using a guiding line
Members of the Chattanooga/Hamilton County Cave Team haul a patient from the 50 foot deep entrance pit of Pryor Springs Cave using a guiding line

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* Incident Commander - is responsible for all activities, including the development and implementation of strategic decisions during the course of an incident. The IC monitors all aspects of an operation including planning, logistics, communications and information.

* Underground Manager - is usually responsible for the implementation the plan provided by the incident commander. The underground manager assigns and monitors vital tasks including rigging, medical, patient packaging and transport, and communications with the IC on the surface. The underground manager is also usually responsible for the safety of the entire underground team.

* Initial Response Team - is a small unit of 1st responders. The task of the IRT team is to travel through the cave to the patient and evaluate the situation with the purpose of reporting back to the appropriate manager. The IRT team usually includes the medical personnel so medical intervention can begin early if necessary.

* Medical Team - varies in size and level of the medics ability from agency to agency. The medical team rarely participates in any other rescue function other than managing patient care.

* Communications Team - are responsible for creating and maintaining communications between the teams in the cave and the Incident Commander. A common means of communications on a cave rescue are military field phones. Military phones are reliable but heavy, and the need for abundant amounts of com-line can make running communications deep into a cave difficult. Another, more advanced type of communication, are low frequency radios, which eliminate the need for thousands of feet of com line in a cave. Low frequency radios can communicate through thousands of feet of solid rock, making them ideal for use deep into caves.

* Rigging Team - are responsible for one or more stations in a cave that require the rigging of ropes or systems to safely transport the patient and emergency personnel through the cave. In a large scale rescue, many rigging teams could be scattered throughout a cave, assigned with multiple tasks.

* Litter Team - is made up of rescue personnel that are not already assigned to rigging, communications, medical or management positions. The responsibility of the Litter Team is the packaging and safe transport of the patient through the cave.

* Entrance Control - is responsible for the logging of all personnel entering and leaving a cave. In some cases the Entrance Control could also be assigned the duty of logging all gear entering and leaving the cave. This is an important task on any cave rescue.

Caving organizations

Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. Among the oldest of these are the National Speleological Society (1941) of the USA (originally formed as the Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939) and the Swiss Society of Speleology created in 1939 in Geneva.

Cave conservation

Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even the slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath.

Pollution is also of concern. Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone's drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well. Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota.

Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile, and often, a particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world. Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves.

Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Despite their often frightening reputation in fiction and in the movies, bats generally have more to fear from humans than vice-versa. Bats can be beneficial to humans in many ways, especially through their important ecological role in reducing insect pest populations, and pollination of plant species. Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during the winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young. For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during the warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable.

Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as a pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under the touch of any but the most careful archaeologist.

Safety cave rescue

Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling, flooding, and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialised courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key.

The risks are minimised by a number of techniques:

* Checking that there is no danger of flooding during the expedition. Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly, trapping people in cut-off passages and drowning them. After falling, this is the most likely fatal accident in caving.[citation needed]
* Using teams of several, preferably at least of four cavers. If an injury occurs, one caver stays with the injured person while the other two go out for help, providing assistance to each other on their way out.
* Notifying people outside the cave as to the intended return time. After an appropriate delay without a return, these will then organise a search party (usually made up by other cavers trained in cave rescues, as even professional emergency personnel are unlikely to have the skills to effect a rescue in difficult conditions).
* Use of helmet-mounted lights (hands-free) with extra batteries. American cavers recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice amongst European cavers.[citation needed]
* Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a helmet, are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, falls, and falling objects. Synthetic fibers and woolens, which dry quickly, shed water, and are warm when wet, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia. It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed. In watery cave passages, polypropylene thermal underwear or wetsuits may be required to avoid hypothermia.
* Cave passages look different from different directions. In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers can become lost. To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorise the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party. Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave. In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or "cairns" of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection.
* Vertical caving using ladders or SRT (Single Rope Technique) to avoid the need for climbing passages that are too difficult. SRT however is a complex skill and requires proper training before use underground and needs well-maintained equipment. Some drops that are abseiled down may be as deep as several hundred meters (for example Harwood Hole).

Practice and equipment for caving

Helmets are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric lights are most common, with halogen lamps being standard and white LEDs as the new competing technology. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light - one as primary and the others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamps systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers.

The type of clothes worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece ("furry") suit and/or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura) and/or waterproof (e.g., PVC) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide some abrasion protection whilst remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn - hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies) often with neoprene socks ("wetsocks") in wetter caves. Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on the nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion and/or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants.

Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches ("Single Rope Technique") or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight- (or figure-of-nine-) loop, bowline, alpine butterfly, and Italian hitch. Ropes are usually rigged using bolts, slings, and karabiners. In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use a flexible metal ladder.

In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting faeces out of the cave are carried.

During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave. This necessitates the caver carrying sleeping and cooking equipment.

Caving's naming issues

Clay Perry — an American caver of the 1940s — wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England. This group referred to themselves as spelunkers. This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas. Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English. It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US.

In the 1960s, the term "spelunking" began to convey the idea of inexperienced cavers, using unreliable light sources and cotton clothing. In 1985, Steve Knutson (editor of American Caving Accidents) made the following distinction:

"...Note that I use the term 'spelunker' to denote someone untrained and unknowledgeable in current exploration techniques, and 'caver' for those who are."

This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and t-shirts displayed by many cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers".

Potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes, a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves. The term is often used as a synonym for caving, and outside the caving world there is a general impression that potholing is a more "extreme" version of caving.

Caving

The challenges of the sport depend on the cave being visited, but often include the negotiation of pitches, squeezes, and water (though actual cave diving is a separate sub-specialty undertaken only by very few cavers). Climbing or crawling is often necessary, and ropes are used extensively for safety of the negotiation of particularly steep or slippery passages.

Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving. Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers. Virgin cave systems comprise some of the last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate and enter them. In well-explored regions (such as most first-world countries), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires digging or diving.

Caves have been explored out of necessity (for shelter from the elements or from enemies), out of curiosity or for mystical reasons for thousands of years. However, only in the last century or two has the activity developed into a sophisticated, athletic pastime. In recent decades caving has changed considerably due to the availability of modern protective wear and equipment. It has recently come to be known as an "extreme sport" by some (though not commonly considered as such by its practitioners, who may dislike the term for its perceived connotation of disregard for safety).

Many of the skills of caving can also be used in the nature activities of mine exploration and urban exploration.

Camping Safety Tips

great outdoors, camping tips


Whether you're roughing it in a tent or planning a family outing to a national park, there are many ways to make sure your experience is fun and safe. Consider the following safety tips: emergency preparedness first aid
· Pack a first aid kit. Your kit can prove invaluable if you or a member of your group suffers a cut, bee sting or allergic reaction. Pack antiseptics for cuts and scrapes, tweezers, insect repellent, bug spray, a snake bite kit, pain relievers, and sunscreen.
· Bring emergency supplies. In addition to a first aid kit, this includes: a map, compass, flashlight, knife, waterproof fire starter, personal shelter, whistle, warm clothing, high energy food, water, and insect protection. safety tips
· Learn the ABC's of treating emergencies. Recognizing serious injuries will enable you to attend to a victim until medical help arrives. safety tips
· Before you leave, find out the weather report. When you arrive at the site, watch the skies for changes and carry a compact weather radio. In inclement weather, find shelter until the worse passes. Stay dry - wet clothes contribute to heat loss. Also, keep sleeping bags and important gear, dry at all times. safety tips
· Arrive early. Plan your trip so that you arrive at your actual campsite with enough daylight to check over the entire site and to set-up camp.
· Check for potential hazards. Be sure to check the site thoroughly for glass, sharp objects, branches, large ant beds, poison ivy, bees, and hazardous terrain.
· Avoid areas of natural hazards. Check the contour of the land and look for potential trouble due to rain. Areas that could flood or become extremely muddy can pose a problem. emergency preparedness first aid
· Inspect the site. Look for a level site with enough room to spread out all your gear. Also, a site that has trees or shrubs on the side of prevailing winds will help block strong, unexpected gusts. emergency preparedness first aid
· Build fires in a safe area. Your open fires and fuel-burning appliances must be far enough away from the tent to prevent ignition from sparks, flames, and heat. Never use a flame or any other heating device inside a tent. Use a flashlight or battery-powered light instead.
· Make sure your fires are always attended. Be sure you have an area for a fire that cannot spread laterally or vertically - a grill or stone surface is ideal. When putting the fire out, drown it with water, making sure all embers, coals and sticks are wet. Embers buried deep within the pile have a tendency to re-unite later.
· Pitch your tent in a safe spot. Make sure your tent is made of a flame-retardant fabric, and set up far enough away from the campfire. Keep insects out of your tent by closing the entrance quickly when entering or leaving.
· Dispose of trash properly. Remember to recycle - use the proper recycling bins if available.
· Be cautious when using a propane stove. Read the instructions that come with the stove and propane cylinder. Use the stove as a cooking appliance only - never leave it unattended while it's burning. great outdoors, camping tips
· Watch out for bugs. Hornets, bees, wasps, and yellow jackets are a problem at many campsites. Avoid attracting stinging insects by wearing light-colored clothing and avoiding perfumes or colognes. Should such an insect approach, do not wave wildly and swat blindly - instead use a gentle pushing or brushing motion to deter them.
· Beware when encountering wildlife. To ward off bears, keep your campsite clean, and do not leave food, garbage, coolers, cooking equipment or utensils out in the open. Remember that bears are potentially dangerous and unpredictable - never feed or approach a bear. Use a flashlight at night - many animals feed at night and the use of a flashlight may warn them away.
· Beware of poisonous plants. Familiarize yourself with any dangerous plants that are common to the area. If you come into contact with a poisonous plant, immediately rinse the affected area with water and apply a soothing lotion such as calamine to the affected area. camping tips, great outdoors emergency preparedness first aid
· Practice good hygiene. Make sure you wash your hands, particularly after using the toilet and before handling food, to prevent everyone in your group becoming ill.

Rope rescue

Rope rescue is a subset of technical rescue that involves the use of static nylon kernmantle ropes, anchoring and belaying devices, friction rappel devices, various devices to utilize mechanical advantage for hauling systems, and other specialized equipment to reach victims and safely recover them.

Three primary categories of rope rescue exist: high angle urban/structural, wilderness/mountain rescue, and cave rescue. There are significant differences between each in both technique and equipment. As a rule, urban rope rescue involves heavier equipment and is of relatively short duration. Cave and Wilderness rope rescue involves lighter equipment with extended rescue times. Though there is significant overlap in techniques and concepts, the two skill sets are not considered interchangeable. What works in an urban environment may not work in a wilderness environment and vice versa.

In the USA, urban/structural rope rescue performed by professional rescue agencies such as EMS or fire departments is addressed by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) regulation 1670, and certain disciplines such as confined space rescue may also be addressed by 29 CFR 1910.146 and 29 CFR 1910.147. In most cases, wilderness rope rescue is not specifically covered by such mandates (except in the case where the wilderness rescue is carried out by professional organizations that are otherwise covered).

Rescue should not be attempted by individuals who have not been formally trained. Local rescue authorities may be able to provide information on rope rescue training, practice, and equipment. Courses that are helpful are Heavy Rescue Technician, Rope Rescue Technician, and Swiftwater Rescue Technician.

NFPA regulation 1006 and 1670 state that all "rescuers" must have medical training to perform any technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself during an extrication. Therefore, in most all rescue environments, whether it is an EMS Department or Fire Department that runs the rescue, the actual rescuers who cut the vehicle and run the extrication scene or perform any rescue such as rope, low angle, etc, are Medical First Responders, Emergency Medical Technicians, or Paramedics, as most every rescue has a patient involved.



Technical rescue refers to those aspects of saving life or property that employ the use of tools and skills that exceed those normally reserved for fire fighting, medical emergency, and rescue. These disciplines include rope rescue, swiftwater rescue, dive rescue, confined space rescue, snow and ice rescue, cave rescue, trench/excavation rescue, and building collapse rescue, among others. In the United States, technical rescues will often have multiple jurisdictions operating together to effect the rescue, and will often use the Incident Command System to manage the incident and resources at scene.

NFPA regulation 1006 and 1670 state that all 'rescuers' must have medical training to perform any technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself during an extrication. Therefore, in most all rescue environments, whether it is an EMS department or fire department that runs the rescue, the actual rescuers who cut the vehicle and run the extrication scene or perform any rescue such as rope, low angle, etc, are medical first responders, emergency medical technicians, or paramedics, as most every rescue has a patient involved.

The thing in the crater

the climbers

view from the peak

Mountain Biking Rules

Mountain Biking Rules
mountain bike mountain bikes

	As an off-road cyclist, it is your responsibility to ride safely and considerately. Get to know your local parks, the park staff and bike trails before your adventure. Every trail user should exercise common courtesy; making sure to check trail signs and use park maps. According to the International Mountain Bicycling Association (IMBA) bicycling opportunities remain threatened in many locations
due to land management issues, rude or dangerous cyclists, trail-use conflicts, and damage to trails or ecosystems caused by cycling. Resolving these issues will depend to a large extent on the level of responsibility demonstrated by bicyclists. mountain bikes mountain bike Follow these guidelines to ensure your cycling adventures are safe and enjoyable:

·	Ride on open trails only. Check park map brochures for approved trails. Watch for trail signposts with trail names and informational discs.
·	Always yield. Pass with care and keep your speed to a slow, safe pace. Do not exceed the 15mph speed limit. Approach each bend as if someone were around the corner. Hikers and particularly horses are easily startled. Calling or ringing a bicycle bell to get the attention of other trail users can prevent accidents. Anticipate that other trail users may be around corners in blind spots. mountain bikes mountain bike
·	Control your bicycle. Inattention for even a second can cause disaster. Excessive speed frightens and injures people, gives mountain biking a bad name, and results in trail courses.
·	Leave no trace. Don't ride when the ground is marred, for instance, on certain soils after rain. Never ride off the trail, skid your tires or discard any object. mountain bikes mountain bike
·	Protect the environment. Care for natural resources by honoring restrictions placed on areas that are environmentally fragile.
·	Never scare animals. Give them extra room and time to adjust to you. Running livestock and disturbing wild animals are serious offences. Leave ranch and farm gates as you find them or as marked.
·	Plan ahead. Know your equipment, your ability and the area in which you are riding - and prepare accordingly. Be self-sufficient at all times, keep your bike in good repair, and carry necessary supplies.
·	Dress appropriately. Always wear a helmet. In cold weather, experts suggest wearing a wool or polypropylene base layer against your skin. Polyester clothing worn closest to your skin will trap warm air next to the skin and transfer body moisture away. Continue to layer as needed finishing with a lightweight, windproof shell. This method allows you to take layers off especially during changes in weather.
·	Carry necessary equipment. According to many mountain biking experts, there is certain equipment you must plan on carrying. The further from civilization you plan to venture; your supplies ought to be more inclusive. They are a first aid kit (for minor scrapes and cuts), pump, pocket knife, tire patch kit, chain tool, small crescent wrench, pliers, sunscreen, drinking water, and food.
·	Be prepared for you trip. The key to a successful and enjoyable ride requires knowledge of regulations, proper equipment, preparedness for the unexpected and an understanding of one's personal ability.

Rock Climbing Safety and Guidelines

Safety is and should be one of the important concerns in Rock Climbing. It is usually done in areas where medical assistance is not readily available. Thus, you should know what to do in emergency situations. Likewise, know how to deal with animal and natural hazards.

	Rock Climbing and Outdoor Health & Safety Learn the various medical conditions and injuries that you may experience when you are in high altitudes and know how to prevent and treat those illnesses.
	Natural Hazards In this section, know the different natural hazards that you may encounter and learn what to do if you find yourself in one of those natural dangers.
	Animal & Insect Hazards and Attacks Know the most commonly feared animal and insect attacks. We will teach you how to prevent attacks and what do in case you are confronted with an attack.
	Rock Climbing Accidents Familiarize yourself with the various Rock Climbing accidents and learn to avoid them. Read about those things and a lot more in this article.
	Rock Climbing Etiquette Rock Climbing involves certain risks and climbers are expected to be responsible enough to ensure safety. It is necessary to follow these Rock Climbing safety guidelines.

In Outdoor Activities such as Rock Climbing, it is essential to always ensure the safety of climbers. Adequate knowledge, enough preparation, and physical and mental readiness are necessary before taking the climb. You must also understand the risks associated with the sport and know how to deal with certain situations.

lead climbing

Below is a summary of the citieria that we use to assess an individual's ability to climb and belay safely. All participants must be able to do these things to earn and retain the privilege of climbing in our gyms in order to ensure the safety of everyone. Please do not be disappointed if we require you to test multiple times; we are merely attempting to create as safe an environment as we can. We thank you in advance for taking the time and energy to learn safe climbing and belaying technique. Minimum Requirements for Safe Top-Roped Climbing Touchstone Climbing will issue a belay card and allow climbers to retain the belaying privileges only if the individual demonstrates the following safety items at all times: All participants must sign a waiver releasing Touchstone Climbing from liability and acknowledging their own personal responsibility for safe climbing. All participants must use UIAA-approved belay devices and harnesses. Belayers must remain attentive and stand while belaying. Harnesses must be snug with belt above hips and tied-in securely with buckle doubled back. Figure 8 follow-through knot must be tied through waist belt and leg loops. Minimum of 6 inch tail on figure 8 follow through knot, with additional safety knot optional. Belay device must be set properly and belay carabiner must be locked. Belaying without dropping/letting go of the brake hand. Switching between belaying and lowering without compromising the brake hand. When lowering, brake hand must not go above 3 o'clock position. Minimum Requirements for Safe Lead Climbing All lead climbers and lead belayers must be lead checked by gym staff. The lead test must be on a 5.10b route (or harder) that is unfamiliar to the climber. The reason for this requirement is that only a 5.10b or harder has no rests. We want to ensure that a climber will make the correct safety choices even when fatigued. Belaying Lead belayers must sign into the Lead Check-In Log at the front counter each day. All regular belay rules above must be followed (e.g. harness doubled back, belay hand always on rope, etc.). Belayers must remain attentive to lead climbers at all times and stand while belaying. Belayers must keep minimal slack - rope must not touch ground. Belayer must take the leader fall without losing control and with minimal rope play. Belayer must belay immediately underneath the first clip until climber has clipped at least the 4th quickdraw. Climbing Lead climbers must sign into the Lead Check-In Log at the front counter each day. Leader climbers must bring their own lead ropes, as lead ropes are not provided by the gym. Leader must clip all quickdraws, in order. Leader must clip carabiners in correct direction, without trouble. Lead climbers must clip at a level between their head and waist. Leader must not Z-clip quickdraws. Leader must appear safe. Leader must be willing to take a reasonable fall.

Camping Safety Tips

Camping Safety Tips great outdoors, camping tips
Whether you're roughing it in a tent or planning a family outing to a national park, there are many ways to make sure your experience is fun and safe. Consider the following safety tips: emergency preparedness first aid · Pack a first aid kit. Your kit can prove invaluable if you or a member of your group suffers a cut, bee sting or allergic reaction. Pack antiseptics for cuts and scrapes, tweezers, insect repellent, bug spray, a snake bite kit, pain relievers, and sunscreen. · Bring emergency supplies. In addition to a first aid kit, this includes: a map, compass, flashlight, knife, waterproof fire starter, personal shelter, whistle, warm clothing, high energy food, water, and insect protection. safety tips · Learn the ABC's of treating emergencies. Recognizing serious injuries will enable you to attend to a victim until medical help arrives. safety tips · Before you leave, find out the weather report. When you arrive at the site, watch the skies for changes and carry a compact weather radio. In inclement weather, find shelter until the worse passes. Stay dry - wet clothes contribute to heat loss. Also, keep sleeping bags and important gear, dry at all times. safety tips · Arrive early. Plan your trip so that you arrive at your actual campsite with enough daylight to check over the entire site and to set-up camp. · Check for potential hazards. Be sure to check the site thoroughly for glass, sharp objects, branches, large ant beds, poison ivy, bees, and hazardous terrain. · Avoid areas of natural hazards. Check the contour of the land and look for potential trouble due to rain. Areas that could flood or become extremely muddy can pose a problem. emergency preparedness first aid · Inspect the site. Look for a level site with enough room to spread out all your gear. Also, a site that has trees or shrubs on the side of prevailing winds will help block strong, unexpected gusts. emergency preparedness first aid · Build fires in a safe area. Your open fires and fuel-burning appliances must be far enough away from the tent to prevent ignition from sparks, flames, and heat. Never use a flame or any other heating device inside a tent. Use a flashlight or battery-powered light instead. · Make sure your fires are always attended. Be sure you have an area for a fire that cannot spread laterally or vertically - a grill or stone surface is ideal. When putting the fire out, drown it with water, making sure all embers, coals and sticks are wet. Embers buried deep within the pile have a tendency to re-unite later. · Pitch your tent in a safe spot. Make sure your tent is made of a flame-retardant fabric, and set up far enough away from the campfire. Keep insects out of your tent by closing the entrance quickly when entering or leaving. · Dispose of trash properly. Remember to recycle - use the proper recycling bins if available. · Be cautious when using a propane stove. Read the instructions that come with the stove and propane cylinder. Use the stove as a cooking appliance only - never leave it unattended while it's burning. great outdoors, camping tips · Watch out for bugs. Hornets, bees, wasps, and yellow jackets are a problem at many campsites. Avoid attracting stinging insects by wearing light-colored clothing and avoiding perfumes or colognes. Should such an insect approach, do not wave wildly and swat blindly - instead use a gentle pushing or brushing motion to deter them. · Beware when encountering wildlife. To ward off bears, keep your campsite clean, and do not leave food, garbage, coolers, cooking equipment or utensils out in the open. Remember that bears are potentially dangerous and unpredictable - never feed or approach a bear. Use a flashlight at night - many animals feed at night and the use of a flashlight may warn them away. · Beware of poisonous plants. Familiarize yourself with any dangerous plants that are common to the area. If you come into contact with a poisonous plant, immediately rinse the affected area with water and apply a soothing lotion such as calamine to the affected area. camping tips, great outdoors emergency preparedness first aid · Practice good hygiene. Make sure you wash your hands, particularly after using the toilet and before handling food, to prevent everyone in your group becoming ill.

Rock Climbing Safety

Rock Climbing Safety

A growing sports activity
More than 100,000 recreational athletes in the U.S. have taken to rock climbing. The sport has evolved into an affordable, safe, and year-round activity, due largely to the population of indoor climbing gyms. There's no denying that climbing is a dangerous sport. The higher off the ground and the further from civilization you climb, the greater the risk becomes. Your safety depends on your skills and physical conditioning. Rock climbing involves a wall or rock face, rope and other aids, a belayer (a climber managing the rope), and a harness. Additional equipment includes shoes, a chalk bag, tight fitting clothing, and a helmet. Upper body strength, flexibility, and sheer determination are other requirements.

Injuries
Although falls and other accidents do occur, especially in outdoor climbing where safety measures are up to the outdoor enthusiast, they are rare. Overuse injuries are much more common. The most vulnerable areas include the hand, wrist and elbows. Stress rotational force at the fingertips and knuckle joints can cause rupture of tendons. The positions required manoeuvring up a rock face also call for one-armed holds, thus putting the shoulder at risk for rotator cuff tears or impingement situations. In addition, muscle strains in the lower extremity may result from reaching for toeholds with the legs and hips. As with any outdoor sport, it is best to unroll in a class to learn basis climbing and safety techniques.

Injury Preventionirst aid emergency preparedness safety tips
Proper conditioning and warm ups take care of potential sprains, strains and other such injuries. It's most important for new climbers, who are particularly at risk for overuse, to enter the sport gradually. The demands on the entire body, from head to toe and in between, challenge areas that may not be used regularly. Develop a routine that allows for stretching of the arms, neck, shoulders, back and legs. These stretches should be done after a five to ten minute warm period. Target the forearm and fingers by squeezing a worn-out tennis ball. Using rubber bands for resistance around the fingers is one more at-home exercise you can try. Basic push-ups and pull-ups to enhance upper body strength will go a long way toward helping you conquer a rock face. first aid emergency preparedness safety tips

Gear up first aid emergency preparedness safety tips
Taping between the finger joints, around wrists, fingers, and elbows can add support and protection for the tendons. Also, you can reduce skin abrasions by taping the back of the hands and wrists in a figure eight pattern for minimal restriction. Treat and prevent blisters by taping fingers and using chalk to keep fingers from drying and to reduce friction. Check your knots, harness buckle, belay, and rappel system frequently. It is crucial that you inspect your gear regularly and replace worn equipment immediately. Invest in a good pair of climbing shoes - the tops are generally leather that is only finished on the outside, and the soles are composed of a sticky rubber compound. Also, remember that wearing a helmet could save your life. first aid emergency preparedness safety tips

Prepare mentally
Mental preparation is a vital part of the rock climbing experience. Taking time before and after a climbing session to focus on relaxation can help with the mindset needed to achieve greater confidence and success. Recreational climbing can be exhilarating for the mind and body. Challenge yourself and your body, but be sure to proceed with tempered enthusiasm.
first aid emergency preparedness safety

Bouldering mat

A thick mat used to soften landings or to cover objects that would be hazardous in the event of a fall. They typically consist of a 2-6 inch thick foam section covered with a robust fabric covering. Many brands have integral handles and may easily fold into a reasonable dimension for carrying. Also known by the term crash pad or sketch pad.


Chalk


Gymnasts' chalk is a powder that improves grip by absorbing sweat. It is primarily magnesium carbonate but often with added magnesium sulfate which acts as a drying agent.

For environmental reasons, the use of chalk is controversial in some areas. In areas where rain is infrequent (or under overhangs on any cliff) bold and unsightly chalk marks can build up on popular routes. In places where rain is more common, the chalk residue can form thick deposits. As a result, chalk coloured to match various rock types and biodegradable alternatives are now becoming available.


Chalk bag
Chalk Bags with chalk ball

These are hand-sized fabric bags for holding climbers' chalk. They are usually attached to the back of a waist belt for easy access during a climb.

The powdered chalk may be loose in the bag, or, increasingly, a chalk sock, or chalk ball, is filled with the chalk and this is placed into the chalk bag. Chalk socks are pouches made from a porous material that allows some chalk dust to be excreted when squeezed or rubbed.


POF / Resin

POF or Resin is sometimes used in bouldering. It is principally used to increase friction between the climber's shoes and the rock by providing a slightly stickier surface. It is made of dried tree resin in the form of a powder, and is sometimes mixed with chalk. The powder is usually bound inside a cloth with suitable cord, forming a ball at one end and a free cloth at the other. The resin may then be applied by tapping the resin ball on the rock. Excess is removed by whipping the rock with the free cloth. It is considered cheating in many areas and its use frowned upon due to the build up it can leave on the rock.


Nut tool

A small, but vital, piece of equipment, also known as a nut key. It is made from a flat piece of sheet steel, about 20 cm long, with a hook at one end and the other end shaped into a handle. It is used to extract, from cracks in the rock, nuts which can not be extracted by hand, especially when the nut has supported a climber's weight or arrested a fall. It may need to be hammered (possibly using a stone) in order to shift a particularly stubborn nut. Some models also have a pair of hooks at the handle end, which can be used to pull the trigger of a deeply-seated camming device.


Rope bag

A bag with a tarp, specially designed for storing and protecting climbing rope, usually unfoldable to provide a flat piece of material to place the rope on. However, when conditions are very wet, a large plastic bag such as a garbage bag is often used.


Standards

There are two major standards bodies for certifying the safety and reliability of climbing equipment:
CEN (European Committee for Standardisation)
UIAA (International Federation of Mountaineering Associations)

Any products sold in Europe must, by law, be certified to the relevant standards. There is no such requirement in many other countries, although most manufacturers voluntarily follow UIAA or CEN standards.

Miscellaneous equipment

Helmet
A Petzel Elios climbing helmet designed for caving and mountaineering
See also: Helmet

An often disregarded item of safety equipment that has saved many climbers from serious injury or death. A helmet is a tough item of headwear that primarily protects the skull against impacts. In well-developed and popular climbing areas, these impacts are more commonly caused by falling objects (such as pebbles or climbing equipment) than by a falling climber hitting the rock or ground.

Depending upon the type of climbing being undertaken, helmets are more or less common. There are a number of valid reasons for a climber to choose not to wear a helmet, including concerns about weight, reduction in agility or added encumbrances. However, sometimes the reason can be just vanity. In a gym environment there is no discernible advantage to wearing a helmet but on multi-pitch adventure routes or ice climbing routes only the most foolhardy would not wear a helmet. Between these two extremes, a personal judgement call needs to be made.

Many climbers refer to helmets as brain buckets.


Tape

Medical tape is useful to both prevent and repair minor injuries. For example, tape is often used to fix flappers. Many climbers, who choose not to rest adequately, use tape to bind fingers or wrists to prevent recurring tendon problems. Tape is also highly desirable for protecting hands on climbing routes that consist mostly of repeated hand jamming.

"Tape" is also used to refer to nylon webbing.


Haul bag

A large and often unwieldy bag into which supplies and climbing equipment may be thrown. A rucksack or day pack often has a webbing haul loop on the top edge.

Haul bags are often affectionately known as "pigs" due to their unwieldy nature.
Gear sling

A gear sling is usually used by trad or big wall climbers for when they have too much gear to fit on the gear loops of their harnesses. The most simple forms are homemade slings of webbing, and the most elaborate forms have padding and two slings on each side.

Indoor training equipment

Indoor training equipment

Various items of equipment are employed during climbing-specific training.


Grip savers

A small device that can help in developing the antagonist muscles to those used while gripping by the hand. Use of such a device can prevent ligament injuries that are frequently experienced by climbers.


Fingerboards

An apparatus chiefly used for improving grip strength and practicing grip techniques. They generally consist of a variety of different-sized pockets and ridges that one may hang from, or upon which pull-ups can be performed. These are usually mounted above a doorway, or elsewhere with room to allow the user's body to hang freely. Also called hangboards.


Campus boards

A series of horizontal rungs attached to an overhanging surface that may be climbed up and down without the aid of the feet. When used properly, campus boards can improve finger strength and so-called "contact strength".


Specialist clothing

In the early days of climbing, many would have considered specialised clothing to be cheating. In fact, the first climbers considered an untucked shirt or unbuttoned sport jacket a sign of weakness. Several climbers even chose to climb bare foot, an act that modern climbers would find amazing. In the 80s and early 90s the trend was to wear tight brightly-colored clothes. The trend is to wear more loose clothes now.


Climbing shoes

Specifically designed foot wear worn for climbing. To increase the grip of the foot on a climbing wall or rock face due to friction, the shoe is covered with a vulcanized rubber layer. Usually, the shoes are only a few millimetres thick and have a very snug fit around the feet. Some have foam padding on the heel to make descents and rappels more comfortable.


Belay gloves
A Belay glove
Despite being shunned by the many climbers who claim that belay gloves reduce grip on and control over the rope, belay gloves are a useful aid for belaying on long climbs. In particular, when lowering a climber they remove the possibility of rope burn and the subsequent involuntary release of the rope.

Belay gloves are constructed from either leather or a synthetic substitute. They typically have heat resistant padding on the palm and fingers.

It is very important to use gloves if using a classic or body belay.

Tricams

Tricams

A Tricam is a passive or active device consisting of a shaped aluminium block attached to a length of tape (webbing). The block is shaped so that pulling on the tape makes it cam against the crack, gripping the rock tighter. It requires careful placement so that it does not loosen when not loaded. It is generally not as easy to place or remove as a SLCD but is much cheaper and lighter, and is the only thing that will work in some situations like quarry drill-holes and limestone pockets. The smaller sizes can work well in old piton scars. They can also be used Passively as nuts.

Spring loaded camming devices

Spring loaded camming devices

These consist of three or four cams mounted on a common axle or two adjacent axles, in such a way that pulling on the shaft connected to the axle forces the cams to spread further apart. The SLCD is used like a syringe, by pulling the cams via a "trigger" (a small handle) which forces them closer, inserting it into a crack or pocket in the rock, and then releasing the trigger. The springs make the cams expand and grip the rock face securely. A climbing rope may then be attached to the end of the stem via a sling and carabiner.

They are often referred to as cams or friends®.

Hexcentrics

Hexcentrics

Hexcentrics, usually called hexes, are a type of nut, a hollow eccentric hexagonal prism with tapered ends, usually threaded with tape. They are manufactured by several firms, with a range of sizes varying from about 10mm thick to 100mm wide. Sides may be straight or curved.

Protection devices

Protection devices

Protection devices, collectively known as rock protection or pro, provide the means to place temporary anchor points on the rock. These devices may be categorized as passive (nuts, Hexentrics, etc.) or active (SLCDs).
Typical nuts and a nut tool

Nuts

Nuts are manufactured in many different varieties. In their simplest form, they are just a small block of metal attached to a loop of cord or wire. The most popular styles are tapers and Hexentrics. They are sometimes referred to by the slang term, wires.

Nuts are used by simply wedging them into narrowing cracks in the rock, then giving them a tug to set them.
Black Diamond Hexcentrics

Ascenders

Ascenders

Ascenders are mechanical devices for ascending on a rope. They are also called Jumars, after a popular brand.

Jumars perform the same functionality as friction knots but are stronger, faster, safer and less effort is needed to use them. A Jumar employs a cam which allows the device to slide freely in one direction but tightly grip the rope when pulled on in the opposite direction. To prevent a jumar from accidentally coming off the rope, a locking carabiner is used. The Jumar is first attached to the climber's harness by a piece of webbing or sling, and then the Jumar is clipped onto the rope and locked. Two ascenders are normally used to climb a fixed rope. For climbing a fixed rope attached to snow anchors on a steep slope, only one Jumar is used as the other hand is used for holding the ice axe.

Rack

Rack

These consist of a 'U' shaped frame which is attached to the belayer's harness, onto which fit multiple bars. The rope is weaved through these bars to provide sufficient friction.

Figure eight

Figure eight

Sometimes just called "eight", this device is most commonly used as a descender, but may also be used as a belay device in the absence of more appropriate equipment.

It is an aluminium (or occasionally steel) "8" shaped device, but comes in several varieties. Its main advantage is efficient heat dissipation. A square eight, used in rescue applications, is better for rappelling than the traditional 8. Because of the "ears" or "wings" on the rescue 8, there is less chance of forming a girth hitch whilst rappelling very quickly.
A figure eight descender

Figure eights allow fast but controlled descent on a rope. They are easy to set up and are effective in dissipating the heat caused by friction but have a tendency to put a twist in the rope. Holding the brake hand off to the side twists the rope, whereas holding the brake hand straight down, parallel to the body, allows a controlled descent without twisting the rope. Because of the many bends it puts into the rope, an 8 descender can wear a rope quicker than a tube style belay/rappel device. Many sport climbers also avoid them because of the extra bulk an 8 puts on the rack. However, many ice climbers prefer to use the 8, because it is much easier to thread with stiff or frozen rope.

Rescue eight

A rescue eight is a variation of a figure eight, with "ears" or "wings" which prevent the rope from "locking up" or creating a girth hitch, thus stranding the rappeller on the rope. Rescue eights are frequently made of steel, rather than aluminum.

Rappel devices (Descenders)

Rappel devices (Descenders)

These devices are friction brakes which are designed for descending ropes. Many belay devices can be used as descenders, but there are descenders that are not practical for belaying, since it is too difficult to feed rope through.

Belay devices

Belay devices
ATC-XP on locking carabiner

These are mechanical friction brake devices used when belaying. They allow careful control of the belay rope. Their main purpose is to allow locking of the rope with minimal effort. Many types of belay devices exist, and some of these may additionally be used as descenders, for controlled descent on a rope, that is abseiling or rappeling.

There are passive camming devices and active camming devices. The difference is that passive camming devices rely on the brake hand and a carabiner to lock off the rope. Sticht plates and ATCs are examples of passive camming devices.

Active camming devices have a built-in mechanism that locks off the rope without the help of any other pieces of equipment. A GriGri is an example. The offset cam in the GriGri locks off the rope automatically to catch a falling climber, much like a seatbelt in a car locks off to hold a passenger securely. The GriGri fails at around 9 kN of force.

However, a GriGri, with its technology, often makes belayers become less vigilant. The GriGri is not a hands-free belay device. One mistake with the GriGri is reverse threading it. Reverse threading is to thread the GriGri the wrong way around, rendering the camming action useless. However, in a fall, with a reverse threaded GriGri, bending the rope sharply under the GriGri provides more than enough friction to hold a falling climber.

An example of traditional belay is the Body Belay or the Hip Belay, where the rope is wrapped around the body to provide enough friction to catch a climber. This is often used in Alpine climbing, where the routes are easy, and the belay must be fast.

Ice climbers often use a boot belay, where the rope is wrapped around one boot, thus providing friction.

Harnesses

Harnesses

A harness is used for attaching a rope to a person. The majority of harnesses used in climbing are worn around the pelvis, although other types may be seen occasionally, such as chest and full body versions.

Different types of climbing warrant particular features for harnesses. Sport climbers typically use minimalistic harnesses, some with sewn-on gear loops. Alpine climbers will choose lightweight harnesses, perhaps with detachable leg loops. Big wall climbers prefer lots of padding. There are also full body harnesses for children, whose pelvis bones are not wide enough to be safely held inverted by a sit harness. Some climbers use full body harnesses when there is a chance of inverting, or when carrying a heavy bag. There are also chest harnesses, which are used only in combination with a sit harness; this combination provides the same advantages as a full body harness. However, test results from UIAA show that chest harnesses can put more impact on the neck than sit harnesses, making them slightly more dangerous to use.

Apart from these harnesses, there are also caving and canyoning harnesses, which all serve different purposes. For example, a caving harness is made of tough waterproof and unpadded material, with dual attatchment points. Releasing the carabiner from these attatchment points would loosen the harness quickly.

Canyoning harnesses are somewhat like climbing harnesses, often without the padding, but with a seat protector, making it more comfortable to rappel. These usually have a single attatchment point of Dyneema.

Quickdraws

Quickdraws


Quickdraws (referred to as draws by many climbers) are used by climbers to attach ropes to bolt anchors or protection. They allow the rope to run through with minimal friction. Quickdraws usually consist of two non-locking carabiners connected by a short, pre-sewn loop of webbing. They come in varying lengths, and some even come as extendable slings. DMM makes a wire-gate carabiner with a pulley built in on the end to reduce rope drag on the end of a quickdraw.

Carabiners

Carabiners


Carabiners are metal loops with spring-loaded gates (openings), used as connectors. Almost all carabiners for recreational climbing are made from aluminum alloy.

Carabiners exist in various forms; the shape of the carabiner and the type of gate varies according to the use for which it is intended. There are two major varieties: locking and non-locking carabiners. Locking carabiners offer a method of preventing the gate from opening when in use. Locking carabiners are used for important connections, such as at the anchor point or a belay device. There are four different types of locking carabiners, including a twist-lock and a thread-lock. Non-locking carabiners are commonly found as a component of quickdraws.

Carabiners are made with many different types of gates including wire-gate, bent-gate, and straight-gate. The different gates have different strengths and uses. Most locking carabiners utilize a straight-gate. Bent-gate and wire-gate carabiners are usually found on the rope-end of quickdraws, as they facilitate easier rope clipping than a straight gate. Wire gates are also lighter then other forms and are less likely to vibrate open (referred to as "gate chatter" when caused by striking a rock or swinging while suspended).

Carabiners are also known by many slang names including crab (seldom used) and biner (pronounced beaner).

Steel krabs are normally used by instructors when working with groups as the are harder wearing then aluninum alloy, but are much heavier.

Climbing equipment

Rope, cord and webbingRope and Webbing

Climbing ropes typically consist of a core (kern) of long twisted fibres and an outer sheath (mantle) of woven coloured fibres (hence the term kernmantle construction). The core provides about 80% of the tensile strength, while the sheath is a durable layer that protects the core and gives the rope desirable handling characteristics. The ropes used for climbing can be divided into two classes: dynamic ropes and static ropes. Dynamic ropes have a certain amount of elasticity and are usually used as belay ropes. When a climber falls, the rope stretches, reducing the maximum force experienced by both the climber and his equipment. Static ropes are much less elastic, and are usually used in anchoring systems. They are also used for abseiling (rappeling) as they reduce bounciness and make it easier for a person to descend.

Webbing is flat rope: it has no core. It is a versatile component of climbing equipment. Modern webbing is often made from nylon, and is quite strong—one-inch (25-mm) tubular climb-spec nylon webbing has a tensile strength of about 20 kN (4000 pounds)[1]. Webbing is usually tied (using a water knot or beer knot) or sewn into a loop and is then known as a runner or sling.

Runners have many uses, including anchor extension or equalisation, makeshift harnesses, carrying equipment and as a component of quickdraws.

Most beginning climbers do not invest in a climbing rope until they've had a few chances to see if they like the sport. Climbers who only climb at a climbing gym may not buy their own ropes, as most gyms have set routes and supply the ropes at each climbing station.

Climbing in popular culture

Climbing in popular culture

Climbing has been featured in many popular movies, such as Cliffhanger and Mission: Impossible II, but is usually inaccurately portrayed by Hollywood movies and popular media. Exceptions include the films The Eiger Sanction and Touching the Void. The sport of rock climbing was swept up in the extreme sport craze in the late 1990s which led to images of rock climbers on everything from anti-perspirant and United States Marine Corps commercials, to college promotional materials. Both pole and rope climbing can be seen in circus performances, such as Cirque du Soleil. The sport of rope climbing was once an official gymnastic event in the Olympic Games, but was dropped after 1932. The Czech republic and France have resurrected it and contests are held in public gathering places, such as shopping centers, as well as in gymnasiums. Pole and mast climbing were popular in the 18th and 19th century in village festivals in certain parts of Europe, and were still part of the physical education curriculum at the United States Naval Academy in the 1960s.

Any kind of climbing

Ice climbing: Ascending ice or hard snow formations using special equipment designed for the purpose, usually ice axes and crampons. Protective equipment is similar to rock climbing, although protective devices are different (ice screws, snow wedges).
Bouldering: Ascending boulders or small outcrops, often with climbing shoes and a chalk bag or bucket. Usually, instead of using a safety rope from above, injury is avoided using a crash pad (a combination of high and low density foam, within a heavy duty fabric structure, often transported on the back) and a human spotter (to direct a falling climber on to the pad).
Buildering: Climbing urban structures - usually without equipment - avoiding normal means of ascent like stairs and elevators. Aspects of buildering can be seen in the art of movement known as Parkour.
Tree climbing: Ascending trees without harming them, using ropes and other equipment. This is a less competitive activity than rock climbing.
Rope climbing: Climbing a short, thick rope for speed. Not to be confused with roped climbing, as in rock or ice climbing.
Pole climbing (gymnastic): Climbing poles and masts without equipment.
Pole climbing (lumberjack): Lumberjack tree-trimming and competitive tree-trunk or pole climbing for speed using spikes and belts.

Rock, ice, and tree climbing all usually use ropes for safety or for aid. Pole climbing and rope climbing were among the first exercises to be included in the origins of modern gymnastics in the late 18th century and early 19th century.

Climbing Definition

Climbing

For other uses, see Climbing (disambiguation).
Rock climbers on Valkyrie at The Roaches in Staffordshire, England.
A competitor in a rope climbing event, at Lyon's Part-Dieu shopping centre.

Climbing is the activity of using one's hands or feet to ascend a steep object. It is done both for recreation (to reach an inaccessible place, or for its own enjoyment) and professionally, as part of activities such as maintenance of a structure, or military operations.

Climbing activities include:
Mountain climbing (Mountaineering): Ascending mountains for sport or recreation. It often involves rock and/or ice climbing.
Rock climbing: Ascending rock formations, often using climbing shoes and a chalk bag. Equipment such as ropes, bolts, nuts, hexes and camming devices are normally employed, either as a safeguard or for artificial aid.